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< Back The African savanna elephant is the largest land mammal in the world and can reach up to 3 meters in height and can weigh up to 7 tons. The African forest elephant is 3 feet shorter. Elephants communicate across a large distance at a very low frequency through their feet and the soil that cannot be heard by humans. Elephants live in a herd that is led by the 'matriarch' female. The elephant is threatened by ivory poachers for their tusks. Previous Next BACK TO THE TOP OF THE PAGE

< Back The African buffalo is very territorial and protective and is probably the most dangerous animal of the big five to humans. If this cow-like animal feels threatened it can become very aggressive and charge with astonishing speed. Buffaloes are mostly found in groups and large herds and spend a lot of their time grazing. Both male and female buffaloes have horns, but the males' horns curve and come together in the center, forming a big bony plate called a boss. The primary predator of the buffalo is the lion. A buffalo will try to protect and rescue another member of the herd and they have even been seen killing a lion after the lion had killed a member of the group. Although the African buffalo and water buffalo resemble each other, they are not closely related. Previous Next BACK TO THE TOP OF THE PAGE

< Back The Rhinoceros is the most endangered species of the Big Five due to rhino poaching and illegal trade in rhino horns. There are two species of rhino in Africa: the White Rhino and the Black Rhino and five subspecies. The names of the rhino don't have anything to do with color as both species are grey. The name of the 'white' rhino is a corruption of the Dutch word 'wijd' (wide), which refers to the wide mouth or square lip of the white rhino. A rhino can weigh up to 5000 pounds and its horns can grow up to 5 feet long. Rhinos have poor eyesight but excellent hearing and sense of smell. Previous Next BACK TO THE TOP OF THE PAGE

< Back giraffe , (genus Giraffa ), any of four species in the genus Giraffa of long-necked cud-chewing hoofed mammals of Africa, with long legs and a coat pattern of irregular brown patches on a light background. Giraffes are the tallest of all land animals; males (bulls) may exceed 5.5 metres (18 feet) in height, and the tallest females (cows) are about 4.5 metres. Using prehensile tongues almost half a metre long, they are able to browse foliage almost six metres from the ground. Giraffes are a common sight in grasslands and open woodlands in East Africa , where they can be seen in reserves such as Tanzania’s Serengeti National Park and Kenya’s Amboseli National Park . The genus Giraffa is made up of the northern giraffe ( G. camelopardalis ), the southern giraffe ( G. giraffa ), the Masai giraffe ( G. tippelskirchi ), and the reticulated giraffe ( G. reticulata ). Previous Next BACK TO THE TOP OF THE PAGE

< Back The African leopard is the most solitary and elusive animal of the big 5, staying hidden during the day. They are the least seen of the Big 5 and on most occasions found alone. The leopard is nocturnal and mainly hunts at night. Their kills include zebra and antelopes like Thompson Gazelle. The elusive leopards hide their prey in a tree to prevent lions and hyenas from stealing it. A lion and a leopard both belong to the African big cats, but they can't get along. A lion will kill a leopard if it has the chance. A leopard is also a good swimmer and occasionally eats fish. Previous Next BACK TO THE TOP OF THE PAGE

< Back An African lion is the largest predator on land. Preys of the lion include zebra, impala, giraffes, and other herbivores like wildebeest. A group of lions is called a pride and males are easily distinguished from females because of their large manes. The darker the lion's manes, the older he is. A male lion is sometimes referred to as the king, but in reality, lions don't have a permanent social hierarchy. The dominant male in a lion pride can change at any time. The females hold the territory and stay with the pride in which they were born. They also do most of the hunting and take care of the cubs. Lions use their roar as a form of communication and can be heard up to 5 miles away. Previous Next BACK TO THE TOP OF THE PAGE

WEBSITE PAGE MAP South Africa is a country with a rich history and diverse culture. Our website page maps provide a comprehensive guide to the country's geography, landmarks, and attractions. Whether you're planning a trip or interested in learning more about this fascinating nation, our maps are the perfect resource. Explore South Africa with us today! HOME INTRO WORK WITH ME FILE SHARE WEBSITE MAP INSTRAGRAM FACEBOOK Twitters-X CONTACT OUR GEUSTBOOK ADVERTISEUNG WITH US HISTORY ON SOUTH AFRICA THE FIRST SETTLERS GREAT TREK DAY OF THE VOW BATTLE OF BLOOD RIVER ANGLO ZULU WAR FIRST BOERE WAR THE VOORTREKKERS VOORTREKKER MONUMENT FLAGS OF SOUTH AFRICA HOME KRUGER NATIONAL PARK PLACES TO VISIT CAMPING IN SOUTH AFRICA HIKEING IN SOUTH AFRICA TRAVEL IN SOUTH AFRICA RADIO STATIONS TRAVEL DOCUMENTS HISTORICAL VIEWS TOP LISTS 11 LANGAUGES IN SA PANARAMA GALLERY BIG 5 GAME ENDANGER WILDLIFE VIDEOS ON SOUTH AFRICA WILDLIFE PANARAMA TOP PICTURES OF WILDLIFE BIG FIVE BANKNOTES DANGER ON SAFARIS WILDLIFE SAFARIS WILDLIFE VIDEOS PICTURE GALLERY SOUTH AFRICAN SCHOOL PROJECTS SAFARI TOURS CULTURE OF SOUTH AFRICA PORTFOLIO SOUTH AFRICA ARTS SOUTH AFRICAN FOODS SOUTH AFRICAN TRAVEL GUIDE SOUTH AFRICAN SPORT SOUTH AFRICAN TRIBES AND PEOPLE SOUTH AFRICAN RECIPES SOUTH AFRICAN COAT OF ARMS SOUTH AFRICAN FLAGS SOUTH AFRICAN MONEY NOTES SOUTH AFRICAN GHOST STORIES SOUTH AFRICAN MUSIC AFRIKAANS RADIO STATION SOUTH AFRICAN JOKES & POEMS SOUTH AFRICAN MONEY WILDLIFE PROJECTS DANGERS VISTING SOUTH AFRICA WILDLIFE PARKS WILDLIFE SOUTH AFRICA PROFILE OF MY SELF OUR RADIO STATIONS THE BOERE VOLK HIGHLIGHT SOUTH AFRICA THE AFRIKAANER SOUTH AFRICAN TRIBES SIENER VAN RENSBURG GENERAL DE LA REY CRIME IN SOUTH AFRICA GENOCIDE IN SOUTH AFRICA SOUTH AFRICAN MOVIES SOUTH AFRICAN LINKS OUR PERTITIONS SHARED GALLERY SOUTH AFRICAN MUSIC TERMS OF USE PRIVASY & COOKIES COOKIE CONCENTS NINE PROVINCES SOUTH AFRICA GAUTENG WESTERN CAPE EASTERN CAPE FREE STATE KWA ZULU NATAL MPUMALANGA LIMPOPO NORTH WEST NORTHERN CAPE PLACES TO VISIT NINE PROVINCES SOUTH AFRICA GAUTENG WESTERN CAPE EASTERN CAPE FREE STATE KWA ZULU NATAL MPUMALANGA LIMPOPO NORTH WEST NORTHERN CAPE View More View More View More View More View More View More View More View More View More THE VOORTREKKER MONUMENT THE VOORTREKKERS THE GREAT TREK THE FIRST SETTLERS FLAGS OF SOUTH AFRICA THE ANGLO BOER WAR ANGLO ZULU WAR BATTLE OF BLOOD RIVER THE DAY OF THEVOW View More View More View More View More View More View More View More View More View More THE NINE PROVINCES OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMPOPO NORTHERN CAPE NORTH WEST MPUMALANGA WESTERN CAPE FREE STATE KWA ZULU NATAL GAUTENG EASTERN CAPE EVERYTHING TO DISCOVER ABOUT SOUTH AFRICA View More View More View More View More View More View More View More View More View More View More View More View More Heading 4 PEOPLE OF SOUTH AFRICA SOUTH AFRICAN SPORT SAFARI TOURS SOUTH AFRICA PLACES TO VISIT IN SOUTH AFRICA SOUTH AFRICAN FOODS AND RECIPES SOUTH AFRICAN ART KRUGER NATIONAL PARK CAMPING IN SOUTH AFRICA HIKEING IN SOUTH AFRICA MAPS OF SOUTH AFRICA TRAVEL INFORMATION SOUTH AFRICA TRAVEL GUIDE View More View More View More View More View More View More SAFARI TOURS WILDLIFE PARKS WILDLIFE PROJECTS WILDLIFE & SOUTH AFRICAN VIDEOS BIG FIVE GAME BANKNOTES CULTURE & HISTORY ABOUT SOUTH AFRICA View More View More View More View More View More View More View More View More View More View More SOUTH AFRICAN TRIBES THE AFRIKANER SOUTH AFRICAN MUSIC SOUTH AFRICAN MOVIES PANARAMA PICTURES HIJACKING IN SOUTH AFRICA OUR RADIO STATIONS ART & CULTURE GERERAL ABOUT SOUTH AFRICA View More View More View More View More View More View More View More View More View More WILDLIFE MAPS CRIME IN SOUTH AFRICA LANGUAGES SOUTH AFRICAN GENERAL DE LA REY SOUTH AFRICAN FLAG SONGS SOUTH AFRICAN JOKES WILDLIFE ENDANGED SOUTH AFRICAN HISTORICAL PLACES SA CULTURE Call Email a.dezius@gmail.com Follow BACK TO THE TOP OF THE PAGE

South African Tribes The Indigenous tribes of South Africa have rich traditions, customs, and heritage, reflecting their diverse cultural practices and beliefs. South Africa is home to various indigenous tribes including the Zulu, Xhosa, Sotho, and San people, each with unique customs, traditions, and heritage that are deeply rooted in their history and way of life. These tribes have preserved their cultural practices through storytelling, dance, music, art, and spiritual rituals, contributing to the rich tapestry of South Africa’s cultural heritage. Understanding and respecting these traditions is essential for preserving the cultural diversity and identity of South Africa’s indigenous tribes. Everywhere you go in South Africa, you will find the incredible influence of these indigenous tribes, shaping the country’s cultural landscape and reinforcing the significance of their traditions and customs. List of Tribes in South Africa South Africa is a diverse country with a rich cultural heritage. One of the fascinating aspects of this heritage is the presence of numerous tribes across the nation. These tribes have played a significant role in shaping the country’s history, culture, and social fabric. Let’s explore some of the notable tribes in South Africa: San People The San, also known as the Bushmen, are the indigenous people of South Africa. They have a rich history that spans thousands of years, with their rock art being a testament to their ancestral presence. The San people have a deep knowledge of the land and a profound spiritual connection to nature. Analysis: The struggle for the recognition and preservation of San heritage is an ongoing battle. As South Africa progresses, it is essential to ensure that the voices and rights of the San people are respected and protected. The San peoples (also Saan), or Bushmen, are the members of any of the indigenous hunter-gatherer cultures of southern Africa, and the oldest surviving cultures of the region.[2] They are thought to have diverged from other humans 100,000 to 200,000 years ago. Their recent ancestral territories span Botswana , Namibia , Angola , Zambia , Zimbabwe , Lesotho , and South Africa . The San speak, or their ancestors spoke, languages of the Khoe , Tuu , and Kxʼa language families, and can be defined as a people only in contrast to neighboring pastoralists such as the Khoekhoe and descendants of more recent waves of immigration such as the Bantu , Europeans , and Asians . In 2017, Botswana was home to approximately 63,500 San, making it the country with the highest proportion of San people at 2.8%. San people were enumerated in Namibia in 2023, making it the country with the second highest proportion of San people at 2.4%. Definition In Khoekhoegowab , the term "San" has a long vowel and is spelled Sān. It is an exonym meaning "foragers" and is used in a derogatory manner to describe people too poor to have cattle. Based on observation of lifestyle, this term has been applied to speakers of three distinct language families living between the Okavango River in Botswana and Etosha National Park in northwestern Namibia , extending up into southern Angola ; central peoples of most of Namibia and Botswana, extending into Zambia and Zimbabwe ; and the southern people in the central Kalahari towards the Molopo River , who are the last remnant of the previously extensive indigenous peoples of southern Africa. Names Portrait of a bushman. Alfred Duggan-Cronin. South Africa, early 20th century. The Wellcome Collection, London. The designations "Bushmen" and "San" are both exonyms . The San have no collective word for themselves in their own languages. "San" comes from a derogatory Khoekhoe word used to refer to foragers without cattle or other wealth, from a root saa "picking up from the ground" + plural -n in the Haiǁom dialect . "Bushmen" is the older cover term, but "San" was widely adopted in the West by the late 1990s. The term Bushmen, from 17th-century Dutch Bosjesmans, is still used by others and to self-identify, but is now considered pejorative or derogatory by many South Africans. In 2008, the use of boesman (the modern Afrikaans equivalent of "Bushman") in the Die Burger newspaper was brought before the Equality Court . The San Council testified that it had no objection to its use in a positive context, and the court ruled that the use of the term was not derogatory. The San refer to themselves as their individual nations, such as ǃKung (also spelled ǃXuun, including the Juǀʼhoansi ), ǀXam , Nǁnǂe (part of the Khomani), Kxoe (Khwe and ǁAni), Haiǁom , Ncoakhoe , Tshuwau , Gǁana and Gǀui (ǀGwi) , etc.Representatives of San peoples in 2003 stated their preference for the use of such individual group names, where possible, over the use of the collective term San. Adoption of the Khoekhoe term San in Western anthropology dates to the 1970s, and this remains the standard term in English-language ethnographic literature, although some authors later switched back to using the name Bushmen. The compound Khoisan is used to refer to the pastoralist Khoi and the foraging San collectively. It was coined by Leonhard Schulze in the 1920s and popularized by Isaac Schapera in 1930. Anthropological use of San was detached from the compound Khoisan, as it has been reported that the exonym San is perceived as a pejorative in parts of the central Kalahari. By the late 1990s, the term San was used generally by the people themselves. The adoption of the term was preceded by a number of meetings held in the 1990s where delegates debated on the adoption of a collective term. These meetings included the Common Access to Development Conference organized by the Government of Botswana held in Gaborone in 1993, the 1996 inaugural Annual General Meeting of the Working Group of Indigenous Minorities in Southern Africa (WIMSA) held in Namibia, and a 1997 conference in Cape Town on "Khoisan Identities and Cultural Heritage" organized by the University of the Western Cape . The term San is now standard in South African, and used officially in the blazon of the national coat-of-arms . The "South African San Council" representing San communities in South Africa was established as art of WIMSA in 2001. The term Basarwa (singular Mosarwa) is used for the San collectively in Botswana. The term is a Bantu (Tswana ) word meaning "those who do not rear cattle", that is, equivalent to Khoekhoe Saan. The mo-/ba- noun class prefixes are used for people; the older variant Masarwa, with the le-/ma- prefixes used for disreputable people and animals, is offensive and was changed at independence. In Angola, they are sometimes referred to as mucancalas, or bosquímanos (a Portuguese adaptation of the Dutch term for "Bushmen"). The terms Amasili and Batwa are sometimes used for them in Zimbabwe . The San are also referred to as Batwa by Xhosa people and as Baroa by Sotho people . The Bantu term Batwa refers to any foraging tribesmen and as such overlaps with the terminology used for the "Pygmoid" Southern Twa of South-Central Africa. History Bush-Men Hottentots armed for an Expedition, 1804 The hunter-gatherer San are among the oldest cultures on Earth, and are thought to be descended from the first inhabitants of what is now Botswana and South Africa. The historical presence of the San in Botswana is particularly evident in northern Botswana's Tsodilo Hills region. San were traditionally semi-nomadic , moving seasonally within certain defined areas based on the availability of resources such as water, game animals , and edible plants. Peoples related to or similar to the San occupied the southern shores throughout the eastern shrubland and may have formed a Sangoan continuum from the Red Sea to the Cape of Good Hope . Early San society left a rich legacy of cave paintings across Southern Africa.  In the Bantu expansion (2000 BC - 1000 AD), San were driven off their ancestral lands or incorporated by Bantu speaking groups .  The San were believed to have closer connections to the old spirits of the land, and were often turned to by other societies for rainmaking, as was the case at Mapungubwe . San shamans would enter a trance and go into the spirit world themselves to capture the animals associated with rain. By the end of the 18th century after the arrival of the Dutch, thousands of San had been killed and forced to work for the colonists. The British tried to "civilize" the San and make them adopt a more agricultural lifestyle, but were not successful. By the 1870s, the last San of the Cape were hunted to extinction, while other San were able to survive. The South African government used to issue licenses for people to hunt the San, with the last one being reportedly issued in Namibia in 1936. From the 1950s through to the 1990s, San communities switched to farming because of government-mandated modernization programs. Despite the lifestyle changes, they have provided a wealth of information in anthropology and genetics . One broad study of African genetic diversity , completed in 2009, found that the genetic diversity of the San was among the top five of all 121 sampled populations. Certain San groups are one of 14 known extant "ancestral population clusters"; that is, "groups of populations with common genetic ancestry, who share ethnicity and similarities in both their culture and the properties of their languages". Despite some positive aspects of government development programs reported by members of San and Bakgalagadi communities in Botswana, many have spoken of a consistent sense of exclusion from government decision-making processes, and many San and Bakgalagadi have alleged experiencing ethnic discrimination on the part of the government.The United States Department of State described ongoing discrimination against San, or Basarwa, people in Botswana in 2013 as the "principal human rights concern" of that country. Society Further information: San healing practices , San rock art , and San religion Drinking water from the bi bulb plant Starting a fire by hand Preparing poison arrows San man The San kinship system reflects their history as traditionally small mobile foraging bands. San kinship is similar to Inuit kinship , which uses the same set of terms as in European cultures but adds a name rule and an age rule for determining what terms to use. The age rule resolves any confusion arising from kinship terms, as the older of two people always decides what to call the younger. Relatively few names circulate (approximately 35 names per sex), and each child is named after a grandparent or another relative, but never their parents. Children have no social duties besides playing, and leisure is very important to San of all ages. Large amounts of time are spent in conversation, joking, music, and sacred dances. Women may be leaders of their own family groups. They may also make important family and group decisions and claim ownership of water holes and foraging areas. Women are mainly involved in the gathering of food, but sometimes also partake in hunting. Water is important in San life. During long droughts, they make use of sip wells in order to collect water. To make a sip well, a San scrapes a deep hole where the sand is damp, and inserts a long hollow grass stem into the hole. An empty ostrich egg is used to collect the water. Water is sucked into the straw from the sand, into the mouth, and then travels down another straw into the ostrich egg. Traditionally, the San were an egalitarian society. Although they had hereditary chiefs , their authority was limited. The San made decisions among themselves by consensus , with women treated as relative equals in decision making. San economy was a gift economy , based on giving each other gifts regularly rather than on trading or purchasing goods and services. Most San are monogamous , but if a hunter is able to obtain enough food, he can afford to have a second wife as well. Subsistence Villages range in sturdiness from nightly rain shelters in the warm spring (when people move constantly in search of budding greens), to formalized rings, wherein people congregate in the dry season around permanent waterholes. Early spring is the hardest season: a hot dry period following the cool, dry winter. Most plants still are dead or dormant, and supplies of autumn nuts are exhausted. Meat is particularly important in the dry months when wildlife cannot range far from the receding waters. Women gather fruit, berries, tubers, bush onions, and other plant materials for the band's consumption. Ostrich eggs are gathered, and the empty shells are used as water containers. Insects provide perhaps 10% of animal proteins consumed, most often during the dry season. Depending on location, the San consume 18 to 104 species, including grasshoppers, beetles, caterpillars, moths, butterflies, and termites. Women's traditional gathering gear is simple and effective: a hide sling, a blanket, a cloak called a kaross to carry foodstuffs, firewood, smaller bags, a digging stick, and perhaps, a smaller version of the kaross to carry a baby. Men, and presumably women when they accompany them, hunt in long, laborious tracking excursions. They kill their game using bow and arrows and spears tipped in diamphotoxin , a slow-acting arrow poison produced by beetle larvae of the genus Diamphidia . Early history Wandering hunters (Masarwa Bushmen), North Kalahari desert, published in 1892 (from H. A. Bryden photogr.) A set of tools almost identical to that used by the modern San and dating to 42,000 BC was discovered at Border Cave in KwaZulu-Natal in 2012. In 2006, what is thought to be the world's oldest ritual is interpreted as evidence which would make the San culture the oldest still practiced culture today. Historical evidence shows that certain San communities have always lived in the desert regions of the Kalahari; however, eventually nearly all other San communities in southern Africa were forced into this region. The Kalahari San remained in poverty where their richer neighbours denied them rights to the land. Before long, in both Botswana and Namibia, they found their territory drastically reduced. Genetics Various Y chromosome studies show that the San carry some of the most divergent (earliest branching) human Y-chromosome haplogroups . These haplogroups are specific sub-groups of haplogroups A and B , the two earliest branches on the human Y-chromosome tree . Mitochondrial DNA studies also provide evidence that the San carry high frequencies of the earliest haplogroup branches in the human mitochondrial DNA tree. This DNA is inherited only from one's mother. The most divergent (earliest branching) mitochondrial haplogroup, L0d , has been identified at its highest frequencies in the southern African San groups. In a study published in March 2011, Brenna Henn and colleagues found that the ǂKhomani San, as well as the Sandawe and Hadza peoples of Tanzania , were the most genetically diverse of any living humans studied. This high degree of genetic diversity hints at the origin of anatomically modern humans . A 2008 study suggested that the San may have been isolated from other original ancestral groups for as much as 50,000 to 100,000 years and later rejoined, re-integrating into the rest of the human gene pool. A DNA study of fully sequenced genomes, published in September 2016, showed that the ancestors of today's San hunter-gatherers began to diverge from other human populations in Africa about 200,000 years ago and were fully isolated by 100,000 years ago. Ancestral land conflict in Botswana Main article: Ancestral land conflict in Botswana San family in Botswana According to professors Robert K. Hitchcock, Wayne A. Babchuk, "In 1652, when Europeans established a full-time presence in Southern Africa, there were some 300,000 San and 600,000 Khoekhoe in Southern Africa. During the early phases of European colonization, tens of thousands of Khoekhoe and San peoples lost their lives as a result of genocide, murder, physical mistreatment, and disease. There were cases of “Bushman hunting” in which commandos (mobile paramilitary units or posses) sought to dispatch San and Khoekhoe in various parts of Southern Africa." Much aboriginal people 's land in Botswana, including land occupied by the San people (or Basarwa), was conquered during colonization. Loss of land and access to natural resources continued after Botswana's independence.  The San have been particularly affected by encroachment by majority peoples and non-indigenous farmers onto their traditional land. Government policies from the 1970s transferred a significant area of traditionally San land to majority agro-pastoralist tribes and white settlers much of the government's policy regarding land tended to favor the dominant Tswana peoples over the minority San and Bakgalagadi .  Loss of land is a major contributor to the problems facing Botswana's indigenous people, including especially the San's eviction from the Central Kalahari Game Reserve .  The government of Botswana decided to relocate all of those living within the reserve to settlements outside it. Harassment of residents, dismantling of infrastructure, and bans on hunting appear to have been used to induce residents to leave. The government has denied that any of the relocation was forced. A legal battle followed. The relocation policy may have been intended to facilitate diamond mining by Gem Diamonds within the reserve. Hoodia traditional knowledge agreement Hoodia gordonii , used by the San, was patented by the South African Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) in 1998, for its presumed appetite suppressing quality, although, according to a 2006 review, no published scientific evidence supported hoodia as an appetite suppressant in humans. A licence was granted to Phytopharm , for development of the active ingredient in the Hoodia plant, p57 (glycoside), to be used as a pharmaceutical drug for dieting. Once this patent was brought to the attention of the San, a benefit-sharing agreement was reached between them and the CSIR in 2003. This would award royalties to the San for the benefits of their indigenous knowledge. During the case, the San people were represented and assisted by the Working Group of Indigenous Minorities in Southern Africa (WIMSA), the South African San Council and the South African San Institute. This benefit-sharing agreement is one of the first to give royalties to the holders of traditional knowledge used for drug sales. The terms of the agreement are contentious, because of their apparent lack of adherence to the Bonn Guidelines on Access to Genetic Resources and Benefit Sharing, as outlined in the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). The San have yet to profit from this agreement, as P57 has still not yet been legally developed and marketed. Representation in mass media Rock paintings in the Cederberg , Western Cape San paintings near Murewa , Zimbabwe San paintings near Murewa Early representations The San of the Kalahari were first brought to the globalized world's attention in the 1950s by South African author Laurens van der Post . Van der Post grew up in South Africa, and had a respectful lifelong fascination with native African cultures. In 1955, he was commissioned by the BBC to go to the Kalahari desert with a film crew in search of the San. The filmed material was turned into a very popular six-part television documentary a year later. Driven by a lifelong fascination with this "vanished tribe," Van der Post published a 1958 book about this expedition, entitled The Lost World of the Kalahari. It was to be his most famous book. In 1961, he published The Heart of the Hunter, a narrative which he admits in the introduction uses two previous works of stories and mythology as "a sort of Stone Age Bible," namely Specimens of Bushman Folklore ' (1911), collected by Wilhelm H. I. Bleek and Lucy C. Lloyd , and Dorothea Bleek 's Mantis and His Friend. Van der Post's work brought indigenous African cultures to millions of people around the world for the first time, but some people disparaged it as part of the subjective view of a European in the 1950s and 1960s, stating that he branded the San as simple "children of Nature" or even "mystical ecologists." In 1992 by John Perrot and team published the book "Bush for the Bushman" – a "desperate plea" on behalf of the aboriginal San addressing the international community and calling on the governments throughout Southern Africa to respect and reconstitute the ancestral land-rights of all San. Documentaries and non-fiction This section contains promotional content . Please help improve it by removing promotional language and inappropriate external links , and by adding encyclopedic text written from a neutral point of view . (July 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this message ) John Marshall, the son of Harvard anthropologist Lorna Marshall , documented the lives of San in the Nyae Nyae region of Namibia over a period spanning more than 50-years. His early film The Hunters, shows a giraffe hunt. A Kalahari Family (2002) is a series documenting 50 years in the lives of the Juǀʼhoansi of Southern Africa, from 1951 to 2000. Marshall was a vocal proponent of the San cause throughout his life. His sister Elizabeth Marshall Thomas wrote several books and numerous articles about the San, based in part on her experiences living with these people when their culture was still intact. The Harmless People, published in 1959, and The Old Way: A Story of the First People, published in 2006, are two of them. John Marshall and Adrienne Miesmer documented the lives of the ǃKung San people between the 1950s and 1978 in Nǃai, the Story of a ǃKung Woman. This film, the account of a woman who grew up while the San lived as autonomous hunter-gatherers, but who later was forced into a dependent life in the government-created community at Tsumkwe, shows how the lives of the ǃKung people , who lived for millennia as hunter gatherers, were forever changed when they were forced onto a reservation too small to support them. South African film-maker Richard Wicksteed has produced a number of documentaries on San culture, history and present situation; these include In God's Places / Iindawo ZikaThixo (1995) on the San cultural legacy in the southern Drakensberg; Death of a Bushman (2002) on the murder of San tracker Optel Rooi by South African police; The Will To Survive (2009), which covers the history and situation of San communities in southern Africa today; and My Land is My Dignity (2009) on the San's epic land rights struggle in Botswana's Central Kalahari Game Reserve . A documentary on San hunting entitled, The Great Dance: A Hunter's Story (2000), directed by Damon and Craig Foster . This was reviewed by Lawrence Van Gelder for the New York Times , who said that the film "constitutes an act of preservation and a requiem." Spencer Wells 's 2003 book The Journey of Man —in connection with National Geographic 's Genographic Project —discusses a genetic analysis of the San and asserts their genetic markers were the first ones to split from those of the ancestors of the bulk of other Homo sapiens sapiens. The PBS documentary based on the book follows these markers throughout the world, demonstrating that all of humankind can be traced back to the African continent (see Recent African origin of modern humans , the so-called "out of Africa" hypothesis). The BBC's The Life of Mammals (2003) series includes video footage of an indigenous San of the Kalahari desert undertaking a persistence hunt of a kudu through harsh desert conditions. It provides an illustration of how early man may have pursued and captured prey with minimal weaponry. The BBC series How Art Made the World (2005) compares San cave paintings from 200 years ago to Paleolithic European paintings that are 14,000 years old. Because of their similarities, the San works may illustrate the reasons for ancient cave paintings. The presenter Nigel Spivey draws largely on the work of Professor David Lewis-Williams ,[83] whose PhD was entitled "Believing and Seeing: Symbolic meanings in southern San rock paintings". Lewis-Williams draws parallels with prehistoric art around the world, linking in shamanic ritual and trance states. Films and music Rock painting of a man in Twyfelfontein valley A 1969 film, Lost in the Desert , features a small boy, stranded in the desert, who encounters a group of wandering San. They help him and then abandon him as a result of a misunderstanding created by the lack of a common language and culture. The film was directed by Jamie Uys , who returned to the San a decade later with The Gods Must Be Crazy , which proved to be an international hit. This comedy portrays a Kalahari San group's first encounter with an artifact from the outside world (a Coca-Cola bottle). By the time this movie was made, the ǃKung had recently been forced into sedentary villages, and the San hired as actors were confused by the instructions to act out inaccurate exaggerations of their almost abandoned hunting and gathering life.[84] "Eh Hee " by Dave Matthews Band was written as an evocation of the music and culture of the San. In a story told to the Radio City audience (an edited version of which appears on the DVD version of Live at Radio City ), Matthews recalls hearing the music of the San and, upon asking his guide what the words to their songs were, being told that "there are no words to these songs, because these songs, we've been singing since before people had words." He goes on to describe the song as his "homage to meeting... the most advanced people on the planet." Rock engraving of a giraffe in Twyfelfontein valley Memoirs In Peter Godwin 's biography When A Crocodile Eats the Sun, he mentions his time spent with the San for an assignment. His title comes from the San's belief that a solar eclipse occurs when a crocodile eats the sun. Novels Laurens van der Post 's two novels, A Story Like The Wind (1972) and its sequel, A Far Off Place (1974), made into a 1993 film , are about a white boy encountering a wandering San and his wife, and how the San's life and survival skills save the white teenagers' lives in a journey across the desert. James A. Michener 's The Covenant (1980), is a work of historical fiction centered on South Africa. The first section of the book concerns a San community's journey set roughly in 13,000 BC. In Wilbur Smith 's novel The Burning Shore (an instalment in the Courtneys of Africa book series ), the San people are portrayed through two major characters, O'wa and H'ani; Smith describes the San's struggles, history, and beliefs in great detail. Norman Rush 's 1991 novel Mating features an encampment of Basarwa near the (imaginary) Botswana town where the main action is set. Tad Williams 's epic Otherland series of novels features a South African San named ǃXabbu, whom Williams confesses to be highly fictionalized, and not necessarily an accurate representation. In the novel, Williams invokes aspects of San mythology and culture. In 2007, David Gilman published The Devil's Breath. One of the main characters, a small San boy named ǃKoga, uses traditional methods to help the character Max Gordon travel across Namibia. Alexander McCall Smith has written a series of episodic novels set in Gaborone , the capital of Botswana. The fiancé of the protagonist of The No. 1 Ladies' Detective Agency series, Mr. J. L. B. Matekoni, adopts two orphaned San children, sister and brother Motholeli and Puso. The San feature in several of the novels by Michael Stanley (the nom de plume of Michael Sears and Stanley Trollip), particularly in Death of the Mantis. In Christopher Hope 's book Darkest England, the San hero, David Mungo Booi, is tasked by his fellow tribesmen with asking the Queen for the protection once promised, and to evaluate the possibility of creating a colony on the island. He discovered England in the manner of 19th century Western explorers. SOUTHERN SOTHO PEOPLE NORTHERN SOTHO PEOPLE Sotho The Sotho tribe is divided into three main sub-groups: the Southern Sotho, the Northern Sotho, and the Tswana. These tribes share a common language but have distinct cultural practices. Known for their vibrant traditional clothing and music, the Sotho people have a rich cultural heritage that is expressed through rituals, dance, and music. The Sotho (/ˈsuːtuː/ ), also known as the Basotho (/bæˈsuːtuː/ ), are a Sotho-Tswana ethnic group who have long inhabited Southern Africa . They primarily inhabit the regions of Lesotho , South Africa , Botswana and Namibia The ancestors of the Sotho people are believed to have originated from Northeast Africa, and migrated south in the fifth century CE. The Sotho people have split into different clans over time as a result of the Mfecane (a series of wars and migrations that took place in the 19th century) and colonialism . There are 3 types of Basotho, Northern Sotho , Southern Sotho , Tswana people The British and the Boers (Dutch descendants ) divided Sotho land amongst themselves in the late 19th century. Lesotho was created by the settlers in the 1869 Convention of Aliwal North following the conflict over land with Moshoeshoe I , the king of the Southern Sothos. The Southern Sotho of Lesotho's identity emerged from the creation of Lesotho by the British after the Boers defeated Moshoeshoe I in the Third Basotho War in 1868 and he asked the British for protection. Some of the Southern Sotho speakers who were not part of Moshoeshoe's kingdom when he united some of their tribesmen are living in Gauteng , while some are found in the west of KwaZulu-Natal , the north of the Eastern Cape and most of the Free State province. In modern times, the Sotho continue to make significant contributions to South African and Lesotho societies. History Early history Further information: Bantu expansion and Sotho-Tswana peoples The Basotho nation is a mixture of Bantu-speaking clans that mixed with San people who already lived in Southern Africa when they arrived there. Bantu -speaking people had settled in what is now South Africa by about 1500 AD . Separation from the Batswana is assumed to have taken place by the 14th century. Some Basotho people split from the Nguni while others got assimilated into building the Nguni nation. By the 16th century, Iron-working was well established in Basotho communities alongside their Nguni neighbours. Basotho were mostly independent and relatively isolated up until this point in which they occasionally traded with the regions north of their homeland with external links that are described as "Sporadic and Marginal". By at least the 17th century a series of Basotho kingdoms covered the southern portion of the African plateau (nowadays Free State Province and parts of Gauteng ), North West . Basotho society was highly decentralized, and organized on the basis of kraals , or extended clans, each of which was ruled by its own chief. Chiefdoms were united into loose confederations . 19th century 19th century Sotho warrior (top) and King Moshoeshoe (bottom) In the 1820s, refugees from the Zulu expansion under Shaka came into contact with the Basotho people residing on the highveld . In 1823, pressure caused one group of Basotho, the Kololo , to migrate north. They moved past the Okavango Swamp and across the Zambezi into Barotseland , (which is now part of Zambia , Angola , Zimbabwe , Botswana , and Namibia ). In 1845, the Kololo conquered Barotseland. At about the same time, the Boers began to encroach upon Basotho territory. After the Cape Colony was ceded to Britain at the conclusion of the Napoleonic Wars , many farmers opted to leave the former Dutch colony in the Great Trek . They moved inland, where they eventually established independent polities. At the time of these developments, Moshoeshoe I gained control of the Basotho kingdoms of the southern highveld. Universally praised as a skilled diplomat and strategist, he molded the disparate refugee groups escaping the Difaqane into a cohesive nation. His leadership allowed his small nation to survive the obstacles that destroyed other indigenous South African kingdoms during the 19th century, such as the Zulu Mfecane , the inward expansion of the voortrekkers and the plans of the Colonial Office . In 1822, Moshoeshoe established the capital at Butha-Buthe , an easily defensible mountain in the northern Drakensberg mountain range, thus laying the foundations of the eventual Kingdom of Lesotho. His capital was later moved to Thaba Bosiu . To deal with the encroaching voortrekker groups, Moshoeshoe encouraged French missionary activity in his kingdom. Missionaries sent by the Paris Evangelical Missionary Society provided the King with foreign affairs counsel and helped to facilitate the purchase of modern weapons. Aside from acting as state ministers, missionaries (primarily Casalis and Arbousset) played a vital role in delineating Sesotho orthography and printing Sesotho language materials between 1837 and 1855. The first Sesotho translation of the Bible appeared in 1878. In 1868, after losing the western lowlands to the Boers during the Free State–Basotho Wars , Moshoeshoe successfully appealed to Queen Victoria to proclaim Basutoland (modern Lesotho ) a protectorate of Britain. Accordingly, the British administration was established in Maseru , the site of Lesotho's current capital. Local chieftains retained power over internal affairs, while Britain was responsible for foreign affairs and the defense of the protectorate. In 1869, the British sponsored a process to demarcate the borders of Basutoland. While many clans had territory within Basutoland, large numbers of Sesotho speakers resided in areas allocated to the Orange Free State , the sovereign voortrekker republic that bordered the Basotho kingdom. King Moshoeshoe died two years later in 1870, after the end of war, and was buried at the summit of Thaba Bosiu. 20th century A Mosotho man wearing a modianywe Britain's protection ensured that repeated attempts by the Orange Free State , and later the Republic of South Africa , to absorb part or all of Basutoland were unsuccessful. In 1966, Basutoland gained its independence from Britain, becoming the Kingdom of Lesotho . Sesotho is widely spoken throughout the subcontinent due to internal migration . To enter the cash economy, Lesotho men often migrated to large cities in South Africa to find employment in the mining industry . Migrant workers from the Free State and Lesotho thus helped spread Sesotho to the urban areas of South Africa. It is generally agreed that migrant work harmed the family life of most Sesotho speakers because adults (primarily men) were required to leave their families behind in impoverished communities while they were employed in distant cities. Attempts by the apartheid government to force Sesotho speakers to relocate to designated homelands had little effect on their settlement patterns. Large numbers of workers continued to leave the traditional areas of Black settlement. Women gravitated towards employment as agricultural or domestic workers while men typically found employment in the mining sector. In terms of religion, the central role that Christian missionaries played in helping Moshoeshoe I secure his kingdom helped to ensure widespread Basotho conversion to Christianity. Today, the bulk of Sesotho speakers practice a form of Christianity that blends elements of traditional Christian dogma with local, pre-Western beliefs. Modimo ("God") is viewed as a supreme being who cannot be approached by mortals. Ancestors are seen as intercessors between Modimo and the living, and their favor must be cultivated through worship and reverence. Officially, the majority of Lesotho's population is Catholic. The Southern Basotho's heartland is the Free State province in South Africa and neighboring Lesotho. Both of these largely rural areas have widespread poverty and underdevelopment. Many Sesotho speakers live in conditions of economic hardship, but people with access to land and steady employment may enjoy a higher standard of living. Landowners often participate in subsistence or small-scale commercial farming ventures. However, overgrazing and land mismanagement are growing problems. Demographics The allure of urban areas has not diminished, and internal migration continues today for many black people born in Lesotho and other Basotho heartlands. Generally, employment patterns among the Basotho follow the same patterns as broader South African society. Historical factors cause unemployment among the Basotho and other Black South Africans to remain high. Basotho on Horses Percent of Sesotho speakers across South Africa: Gauteng Province: 13.1% Atteridgeville : 12.3% City of Johannesburg Metropolitan Municipality : 9.6% Soweto : 15.5% Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality : 10.0% Katlehong : 22.4% Sedibeng District Municipality : 46.7% West Rand District Municipality : 10.8% Midvaal Local Municipality : 27.9% Free State Province : 64.2% Bloemfontein : 33.4% Language The Uhadi musical bow or thomo musical bow used by the Sotho people, circa 1897. The language of the Basotho is referred to as Sesotho, less commonly known as Sesotho sa borwa. Some texts may refer to Sesotho as "Southern Sotho" to differentiate it from Northern Sotho , also called Sepedi. Sesotho is the first language of 1.5 million people in Lesotho , or 85% of the population. It is one of the two official languages in Lesotho, the other being English.[19] Lesotho enjoys one of Africa's highest literacy rates, with 59% of the adult population being literate, chiefly in Sesotho. Sesotho is one of the eleven official languages of South Africa .[24] According to the 2011 South African National Census of 2011 , almost 4 million people speak Sesotho as their first language , including 62% of Free State inhabitants. Approximately 13.1% of the residents of Gauteng speak Sesotho as their first language. In the North West Province , 5% of the population speaks Sesotho as a first language, with a concentration of speakers in the Maboloka region. Three percent of Mpumalanga 's people speak Sesotho as their first language, with many speakers living in the Standerton area. Two percent of the residents of the Eastern Cape speak Sesotho as a first language, though they are located mostly in the northern part of the province. Aside from Lesotho and South Africa, 60,000 people speak Silozi (a close relative of Sesotho) in Zambia . Additionally, a few Sesotho speakers reside in Botswana , Eswatini and the Caprivi Strip of Namibia . No official statistics on second language usage are available, but one conservative estimate of the number of people who speak Sesotho as a second (or later) language is 5 million. Sesotho is used in a range of educational settings, both as a subject of study and as a medium of instruction. It is used in its spoken and written forms in all spheres of education, from preschool to doctoral studies. However, the number of technical materials (e.g., in the fields of commerce, information technology, law, science, and math) in the language is still relatively small. Sesotho has developed a sizable media presence since the end of apartheid . Lesedi FM is a 24-hour Sesotho radio station run by the South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC), broadcasting solely in Sesotho. There are other regional radio stations throughout Lesotho and the Free State. Half-hour Sesotho news bulletins are broadcast daily on the SABC free-to-air channel SABC 2 . Independent TV broadcaster eTV also features a daily half-hour Sesotho bulletin. Both SABC and the eTV group produce a range of programs that feature some Sesotho dialogue. In Lesotho, the Lesotho National Broadcasting Service broadcasts to South Africa via satellite pay-TV provider, DStv . Most newspapers in Lesotho are written in Sesotho or both Sesotho and English. There are no fully fledged South African newspapers in Sesotho except for regional newsletters in QwaQwa , Fouriesburg , Ficksburg , and possibly other Free State towns. Currently, the mainstream South African magazine Bona[29] includes Sesotho content.[26] Since the codification of Sesotho orthography, literary works have been produced in Sesotho. Notable Sesotho-language literature includes Thomas Mofolo 's epic Chaka , which has been translated into several languages, including English and German. Clothing Basotho in their traditional wear The Basotho have a unique traditional attire. This includes the mokorotlo , a conical hat with a decorated knob at the top that is worn differently for men and women. The Basotho blanket is often worn over the shoulders or waist and protects the wearer against the cold. Although many Sotho people wear westernized clothing, often traditional garments are worn over them. Basotho herders Many Basotho who live in rural areas wear clothing that suits their lifestyles. For instance, boys who herd cattle in the rural Free State and Lesotho wear the Basotho blanket and large rain boots (gumboots ) as protection from the wet mountain terrain. Herd boys also often wear woolen balaclavas or caps year-round to protect their faces from cold temperatures and dusty winds. Basotho women Basotho women usually wear skirts and long dresses in bright colors and patterns, as well as the traditional blankets around the waist. On special occasions like wedding celebrations, they wear the seshweshwe , a traditional Basotho dress. The local traditional dresses are made using colored cloth and ribbon accents bordering each layer. Sotho women often purchase this material and have it designed in a style similar to West and East African dresses. Women often wrap a long print cloth or a small blanket around their waist, either as a skirt or as a second garment over it. This is commonly known as a wrap, and it can be used to carry infants on their backs. Special clothing items Special clothing is worn for special events like initiation rites and traditional healing ceremonies. For a Lebollo la basadi , or girl's initiation ceremony, girls wear a beaded waist wrap called a thethana that covers the waist, particularly the crotch area and part of the buttocks. They also wear gray blankets and goatskin skirts. These garments are worn by young girls and women, particularly virgins. For a Lebollo la banna , or a boy's initiation ceremony, boys wear a loincloth called a tshea as well as colorful blankets. These traditional outfits are often combined with more modern items, like sunglasses. Traditional Sotho healers wear the bandolier, which consists of strips and strings made of leather, sinew, or beads that form a cross on the chest. The bandolier often has pouches of potions attached to it for specific rituals or physical/spiritual protection. It is believed that the San people adopted this bandolier attire for healers during times when the Basotho and the San traded and developed ties through trade, marriage, and friendship. The San people's use of the bandolier can be seen in their rock paintings that date to the 1700s. Sotho Cultural Clothing Seana Marena woollen tribal blanket traditionally Basotho women during Mokhibo Notable Sotho people Literature Thomas Mofolo Lesotho born author Politics Queen 'Masenate Mohato Seeiso Moshoeshoe I , founder of the Basotho nation Moshoeshoe II , Paramount Chief of Lesotho Letsie III , King of Lesotho Queen 'Masenate Mohato Seeiso , Queen Consort of Lesotho Pakalitha Mosisili former prime minister of Lesotho Epainette Mbeki anti-apartheid activist and mother of former South African president Thabo Mbeki Ntsu Mokhehle former prime minister of Lesotho Leabua Jonathan former prime minister of Lesotho Mosiuoa Lekota South African anti-apartheid activist Hlaudi Motsoeneng South African radio personality, broadcast executive, and politician Limpho Hani Lesotho born activist and wife of Chris Hani Phumulo Masualle South African politician and former premier of Eastern Cape province Tsietsi Mashinini South African student activist, known for leading the 1976 Soweto Uprising against Afrikaans education Angie Motshekga South African politician Lechesa Tsenoli South African politician and former deputy Speaker of National Assembly Business Phuti Mahanyele , business executive; CEO of Naspers Kaizer Motaung , business person; chairman of Kaizer Chiefs David Tlale , business person and prominent fashion designer Sam Motsuenyane Entrepreneur and founding chairman of African Bank James Motlatsi former trade unionist and businessman Entertainment Nana Coyote , Lesotho born singer Joshua Pulumo Mohapeloa , music composer Lira , South African singer Yvonne Chaka Chaka , South African singer Michael Mosoeu Moerane , choral music composer Mpho Koaho is a Canadian-born actor of Sotho ancestry Terry Pheto , South African actress Sankomota , Lesotho jazz band Fana Mokoena , South African actor Prince Kaybee , South African disc jockey Kabelo Mabalane , South African musician and one third of the Kwaito group Tkzee Tsepo Tshola , former lead singer of Sankomota jazz band, gospel artist Jerry Mofokeng South African actor David Kau South African comedian Faith Nketsi South African model and media personality Natasha Thahane South African actress Maglera Doe Boy South African rapper Sports Khotso Mokoena athlete (Long jump) Steve Lekoelea South African football player for Orlando Pirates Aaron Mokoena former football player for Jomo Cosmos , Blackburn Rovers , and Portsmouth FC Thabo Mooki South African football player who played for Kaizer Chiefs and Bafana Bafana Abia Nale former football player for Kaizer Chiefs Teboho Mokoena South African football player Lehlohonolo Seema Lesotho born footballer and coach Kamohelo Mokotjo South African football player Relebohile Mofokeng South African football player Lebohang Maboe South African football player for Mamelodi Sundowns See also Sotho–Tswana peoples Sotho-Tswana languages Tswana people Pedi people Barotseland Lozi people Liphofung Historical Site Sotho calendar Battle of Berea VENDA PEOPLE Venda The Venda tribe, located in the northern part of South Africa, has a rich cultural heritage that dates back centuries. Their traditional homesteads, known as “tshikwama,” are an architectural marvel. The Venda people are known for their pottery, wood carving, and intricate beadwork, which are highly regarded forms of artistic expression. Expert Perspective: Art historian, Dr. Phumla Maluleke, explains, “The Venda people have a unique artistic style that is deeply connected to their spiritual beliefs. Their art serves as a means of communication with the spiritual realm.” The Venḓa (VhaVenḓa or Vhangona) are a Bantu people native to Southern Africa living mostly near the South African -Zimbabwean border. The Venda language arose from interactions with Sotho-Tswana and Kalanga groups from 1400. The Venda are closely associated with the 13th century Kingdom of Mapungubwe where oral tradition holds King Shiriyadenga as the first king of Venda and Mapungubwe. The Mapungubwe Kingdom stretched from the Soutpansberg in the south, across the Limpopo River to the Matopos in the north. The Kingdom rapidly declined around 1300 due to climatic change and the population scattered, as power moved north to the Great Zimbabwe Kingdom. The first Venda settlement in the Soutpansberg was that of the legendary chief Thoho-ya-Ndou (Head of the Elephant). His royal kraal was called D’zata; its remains have been declared a National Monument. The Mapungubwe Collection is a museum collection of artefacts found at the archaeological site and is housed in the Mapungubwe Museum in Pretoria. Venda people share ancestry with Lobedu people and Kalanga people . They are also related to Sotho-Tswana peoples and Shona groups. History The Venda of today are Vhangona, Takalani (Ungani), Masingo and others. Vhangona are the original inhabitants of Venda, they are also referred as Vhongwani wapo; while Masingo and others are originally from central Africa and the East African Rift , migrating across the Limpopo river during the Bantu expansion , Venda people originated from central and east Africa, just like the other South African tribes. Clans The Venda of today are descendants of many heterogeneous groupings and clans such as: Dzindou dza Hakhomunala Mutangwe / Dzatshamanyatsha Dzindou Dza Manenzhe Vhafamadi; Vhadau vhatshiheni Vhadau Madamani Rambuda; Vha Ha-Ramavhulela (Vhubvo Dzimauli) Vhakwevho; Vha Ha-Maďavha (Great Warthogs of Luonde who immigrated from Zimbabwe) Vhambedzi; Vhania; Vhagoni; Vhalea; Gebebe; Ndou; Maďou; Vhasekwa; Vhaluvhu; Vhatavhatsindi; Vhalovhedzi VhaMese Vha Ha-Nemutudi Vhatwanamba; Vhanzhelele/Vhalembethu; VhaDzanani Vhanyai; Vhalaudzi; Masingo; and Rambau Runganani (marungadzi nndevhelaho) Ragwala (Vhathu vha thavhani) Takalani(Ungani) Vhadau, Vhakwevho, Vhafamadi, Vhania, Vhalea, and Vhaluvhu were collectively known as Vhangona. The Vhangona and Vhambedzi are considered to be the original inhabitants of Venda and the first people to live there. The land of Vhangona was later settled by Karanga-Rodzvi clans from Zimbabwe: Vhatwanamba, Vhanyai, Vhatavhatsindi, and Vhalembethu. Masingo and Vhalaudzi are late arrivals in Venda. Duration: 10 seconds.0:10 Venda woman singing about a successful trip to collect stinkbugs. Mapungubwe Mapungubwe was the center of a kingdom with about 5,000 people living at its center. Mapungubwe as a trade center lasted between 1220 and 1300 AD. The people of Mapungubwe mined and smelted copper, iron and gold, spun cotton, made glass and ceramics, grew millet and sorghum, and tended cattle, goats and sheep. The people of Mapungubwe had a sophisticated knowledge of the stars, and astronomy played a major role not only in their tradition and culture, but also in their day-to-day lives. Mapungubwe predates the settlements at Great Zimbabwe , Thulamela and Dzata . Venda Royal House The Venda were recognised as a traditional royal house in 2010 and Toni Mphephu Ramabulana was the acting king from 2012-2019. In September 2016 Princess Masindi Mphephu, daughter of Tshimangadzi Mphephu (Venda Chief during 1993–1997), challenged her uncle Ramabulana for the throne. She claimed that she wasn't considered a candidate because of her sex. On 14 December 2016 she initially lost this battle in court when the Thohoyandou High Court dismissed the case. In May 2019, however, the Supreme Court of Appeal overturned the Thohoyandou High Court decision and declared that Toni Mphephu-Ramabulana's appointment as king of the Venda nation was deemed ''unlawful''. Ramubulana has since appealed this ruling, and as of July 2020 the matter was before the Constitutional Court of South Africa.[ The Vhavenda people have since started Notable Venda people Venda homes. The following is a list of notable Venda people who have their own Wikipedia articles. D Benedict Daswa , South African school teacher beatified by the Roman Catholic Church Mulalo Doyoyo , South African engineer, inventor, and professor G Thomas Gumbu , South African politician K Mmbara Hulisani Kevin , South African politician L Mavhungu Lerule-Ramakhanya , South African politician Ma-Mp Noria Mabasa , Venda artist who works in ceramic and wood sculpture E. S. Madima , South African writer Tenda Madima , South African writer Joe Mafela , South African actor, film director and singer Makhado , 19th century King of the Venda people Milicent Makhado , South African actress Rudzani Maphwanya , South African Army officer Tshilidzi Marwala , Vice-Chancellor of the University of Johannesburg , South African engineer and computer scientist Florence Masebe , South African actress Michael Masutha , South African politician Rendani Masutha , South African naval officer and former military judge Shaun Maswanganyi , South African athlete Mark Mathabane , South African tennis player and author of Kaffir Boy Eric Mathoho , South African footballer Kembo Mohadi , Vice President of Zimbabwe. Patrick Mphephu , first president of the bantustan of Venda Mu Daniel Mudau , South African footballer Khuliso Mudau , South African footballer Sydney Mufamadi , South African politician Fulu Mugovhani , South African actress Mukhethwa Mukhadi , South African singer, rapper, producer and director Elaine Mukheli , South African singer and songwriter Colbert Mukwevho , South African reggae singer Gumani Mukwevho , South African politician Collen Mulaudzi , South African long-distance runner Mbulaeni Mulaudzi , South African middle-distance runner Rhoda Mulaudzi , South African footballer Rotshidzwa Muleka , South African footballer Luvhengo Mungomeni , South African footballer Clarence Munyai , South African sprinter Marks Munyai , South African footballer Tshifhiwa Munyai , South African boxer Azwinndini Muronga , South African physicist Shudufhadzo Musida , Miss South Africa 2020 winner Faith Muthambi , South African politician N Phathutshedzo Nange , South African footballer Phillip Ndou , South African boxer Lovemore Ndou , South African boxer Prince Neluonde , South African lawn bowler Fulufhelo Nelwamondo , South African engineer and computer scientist Tshilidzi Nephawe , South African basketball player Joel Netshitenzhe , South African politician Khumbudzo Ntshavheni , South African politician P George Phadagi , South African politician Fred Phaswana , South African businessman R Kagiso Rabada , South African cricketer Vhambelani Ramabulana , South African politician Rodney Ramagalela , South African footballer Cyril Ramaphosa , 5th President of the Republic of South Africa Richard Ramudzuli , South African Events Organizer Gabriel Ramushwana , former head of state of the bantustan of Venda Phophi Ramathuba , South African politician and medical doctor Rudzani Ramudzuli , South African footballer Khume Ramulifho , South African politician Ndivhudzannyi Ralivhona , South African musician Rasta Rasivhenge , South African rugby union referee Frank Ravele , second president of the bantustan of Venda Riky Rick , South African rapper, songwriter and actor T Gabriel Temudzani , South African actor Dan Tshanda , South African musician Mashudu Tshifularo , South African educator and medical specialist Jacob Tshisevhe , South African footballer Mpho Tshivhase , South African philosopher W Ernst Oswald Johannes Westphal , Professor of African Languages, b. Khalavha 1919 Musangwe Musangwe is a Venda tradition of bare-knuckle fist fighting. Musangwe is a sport which was developed not only for entertainment but also for gaining respect among your peers. Vhavenda never allowed violence and fighting, but with this sport you could challenge a person you deemed disrespectful towards you, and the rule is if you are challenged to fight you are to fight or there will be consequences such as a fine or even been beaten up by the elders. The winners of this sport were often compensated with whatever the Khosi (chief) or Vhamusanda (headman) deemed right. The fights have no set time limit and only end when one fighter concedes defeat. No medical staff are on standby to help those injured in the flurry of blows that boxers trade, only village elders watching to guard against indiscretions such as biting or kicking. Importantly, gambling on the outcome of the fights is banned and the winners take nothing away other than a sense of pride in representing their village or family. ZULU PEOPLE The Zulu Tribe Of Southern Africa The Zulu tribe is unequivocally one of the most famous tribes in Africa—for a number of good reasons. First, we have the Shakaland, which is acknowledged worldwide as the birthplace of the Legendary chief, Shaka Zulu. Secondly, Zulu is also acknowledged for being the largest ethnic group in South Africa; with an estimated population of 11 million people. Zulu people (/ˈzuːluː/ ; Zulu : amaZulu) are a native people of Southern Africa of the Nguni . The Zulu people are the largest ethnic group and nation in South Africa , living mainly in the province of KwaZulu-Natal . They originated from Nguni communities who took part in the Bantu migrations over millennia. As the clans integrated, the rulership of Shaka brought success to the Zulu nation due to his improved military tactics and organization.[citation needed ] Zulus take pride in their ceremonies such as the Umhlanga , or Reed Dance, and their various forms of beadwork. The art and skill of beadwork take part in the identification of Zulu people and act as a form of communication and dedication to the nation and specific traditions. Today, the Zulu people are predominantly Christian , but have created a syncretic religion that is combined with the Zulu's prior belief systems. History of the people of Zulu Origins The Zulu were originally a minor clan in what is today Northern KwaZulu-Natal , founded c. 1574 by Zulu kaMalandela . In the Nguni languages , iZulu means heaven or weather. At that time, the area was occupied by many large Nguni communities and clans (also called the isizwe people or nation, or called isibongo, referring to their clan or family name). Nguni communities had migrated down Africa's east coast over millennia, as part of the Bantu migrations . As the nation began to develop, the rulership of Shaka brought the clans together to build a cohesive identity for the Zulu. Strength of the Zulu nation Utimuni , nephew of King Shaka , strikes a warrior's pose The Zulu nation's growth and strength were based on its military organization and skills during Shaka's reign and those of his successors. The military was organized around the ukubuthwa ("to be enrolled") system, which did away with initiation ceremonies for the most part. Each age set, or group of young men of the same age, was assigned to the same regiment (ibutho, singular; amabutho, plural), according to the system. Girls were also subject to ukubuthwa, but they were usually assigned to an age group rather than to a regiment. The amabutho were housed in military barracks (singular, ikhanda; plural, amakhanda) located throughout the kingdom and under the command of a close relative to (or someone else appointed by) the king. The barracks were designed and laid out similarly to an umuzi, but on a much larger scale. Aside from military duties, the izinsizwa ("young men") were also responsible for the repair and maintenance of their barracks Kingdom Main article: Zulu Kingdom King Shaka The Zulu formed a powerful state in 1816 under the leader Shaka . Shaka, as the Zulu commander of the Mthethwa Empire and successor to Dingiswayo , united what was once a confederation of lordships into an imposing empire under Zulu hegemony . Shaka built a militarized system known as Impi featuring conscription, a standing army, new weaponry, regimentation, and encirclement battle tactics. Zulu expansion was a major factor of the Mfecane ("Crushing") that depopulated large areas of southern Africa It was during this period when Shaka deployed an army regiment for raiding nations in the North. The regiment which was under Mzilikazi disobeyed Shaka and crafted a plan to continue raiding up-North forming another dialect of Zulu language referred to as Northern Ndebele (now in Zimbabwe). Another group under Zwangendaba who was Shakas relative from the Gumbi Clan from Pongola and military commander trekked northwards crossing the Zambezi River at Chirundu in 1835 into Zambia setting up the Ngoni nation that extended to Malawi, Mozambique and Southern Tanzania. Conflict with the British Main article: Anglo-Zulu War In mid-December 1878, envoys of the British crown delivered an ultimatum to 11 chiefs representing the then-current king of the Zulu empire, Cetshwayo . Under the British terms delivered to the Zulu, Cetshwayo would have been required to disband his army and accept British sovereignty. Cetshwayo refused, and war between the Zulus and African contingents of the British crown began on January 12, 1879. Despite an early victory for the Zulus at the Battle of Isandlwana on 22 January, the British fought back and won the Battle at Rorke's Drift , and decisively defeated the Zulu army by July at the Battle of Ulundi .[citation needed ] Absorption into Natal Zulu warriors in the late nineteenth century, with Europeans in the background After Cetshwayo's capture a month following his defeat, the British divided the Zulu Empire into 13 "kinglets". The sub-kingdoms fought amongst each other until 1883 when Cetshwayo was reinstated as king over Zululand . This still did not stop the fighting and the Zulu monarch was forced to flee his realm by Zibhebhu , one of the 13 kinglets, supported by Boer mercenaries. Cetshwayo died of a heart attack in February 1884, leaving his son, the 15-year-old Dinuzulu , to inherit the throne. In-fighting between the Zulu continued for years until in 1897 Zululand was absorbed fully into the British colony of Natal Apartheid years KwaZulu homeland Main article: KwaZulu Zulu man performing traditional warrior dance Under apartheid , the homeland of KwaZulu (Kwa meaning place of) was created for the Zulu people. In 1970, the Bantu Homeland Citizenship Act provided that all Zulus would become citizens of KwaZulu, losing their South African citizenship. KwaZulu consisted of many disconnected pieces of land, in what is now KwaZulu-Natal . Hundreds of thousands of Zulu people living on privately owned "black spots" outside of KwaZulu were dispossessed and forcibly moved to bantustans – worse land previously reserved for whites contiguous to existing areas of KwaZulu. By 1993, approximately 5.2 million Zulu people lived in KwaZulu, and approximately 2 million lived in the rest of South Africa. The Chief Minister of KwaZulu, from its creation in 1970 (as Zululand) was Chief Mangosuthu Buthelezi . In 1994, KwaZulu was joined with the province of Natal, to form the modern KwaZulu-Natal. Inkatha YeSizwe Main article: Inkatha Freedom Party Inkatha YeSizwe means "the crown of the nation". In 1975, Buthelezi revived the Inkatha YaKwaZulu, the predecessor of the Inkatha Freedom Party . This organisation was nominally a protest movement against Apartheid but held more conservative views than the ANC . For example, Inkatha was opposed to the armed struggle, and sanctions against South Africa. Inkatha was initially on good terms with the ANC, but the two organisations came into increasing conflict beginning in 1976 in the aftermath of the Soweto Uprising . Language Map of South Africa showing the primary Zulu language speech area in shades of darker green Main article: Zulu language The language of the Zulu people is "isiZulu", a Bantu language ; more specifically, part of the Nguni subgroup. Zulu is the most widely spoken language in South Africa, where it is an official language . More than half of the South African population can understand it, with over 13.78 million first-language and over 15 million second-language speakers. Many Zulu people also speak Xitsonga , Sesotho and others from among South Africa's 12 official languages . Ceremony Zulu people gather at Reed Dance ceremony. See also: Zulu calendar Umhlanga The Zulu people celebrate an annual event that was established in 1984 called the Umhlanga or Reed Dance. This event takes place at the royal capital near Nongoma . This traditional ceremony is performed by young women from all parts of the kingdom to perform in front of the monarch and his guests. The purpose of this event is to promote pride in virginity and to restrain sexual relationships. Beadwork is a prominent attire that is worn at the Umhlanga. The beadwork is not only worn by the dancers but by the guests as well. The Umhlanga is not purely for a time of dance. The King also uses this time to speak to the young men and women of the nation. The King discusses current political issues. Married Zulu women wearing headdresses at annual Reed Dance ceremony. Beadwork History of beadwork The creation of beadwork dates back to the times of war for the Zulu people. This particular form of beadwork was known as iziqu, medallions of war. Often worn as a necklace, the beads were displayed in a criss-cross formation across the shoulders. This assemblage of beads by the warriors represented a symbol of bravery Before the use of glass was apparent to the Zulu, beadwork was derived from wood, seeds and berries. It was not until the arrival of Europeans that glass became a trade material with the Portuguese, which soon became abundantly available to the Zulu. Purpose of beadwork Beadwork is a form of communication for the Zulu people. Typically when one is wearing multiple beads, it is a sign of wealth. The more beads one is wearing, the wealthier they are perceived.The beads have te potential to convey information about a person's age, gender and marital status. The design of the beads often conveys a particular message. However, one must know the context of their use to read the message correctly.[9] Depending on the area in which the beadwork was made, some designs can depict different messages compared to other areas. A message could be embedded into the colours and structure of the beads or could be strictly for decorative purposes.[9] Beadwork can be worn in everyday use but is often worn during important occasions such as weddings, or ceremonies. For example, beadwork is featured during the coming of age for a young girl or worn during dances. The beaded elements complement the costumes worn by the Zulu people to bring out a sense of finery or prestige. Appared Zulu beadwork necklace Beadwork is worn by all men, women, and children at any age. Depending on which stage of life an individual is in, the beadwork indicates different meanings. Beadwork is predominantly worn when young Zulu people are courting or in search of love affairs.[9] The wearing of decorative beadwork can act as an attempt to grab the attention of someone of the opposite sex.[9] Also, the gifting of beadwork is a way of communicating interest with lovers. During the transition from single to married women, beadwork is shown through a beaded cloth apron worn over a pleated leather skirt. As for older or mature women, beadwork is displayed in detailed headdresses and cowhide skirts that extend past the knee. These long skirts are also seen on unmarried women and young marriageable-age girls.[9] Men are more conservative when wearing beadwork However, when a young boy is seen wearing multiple necklaces, it is a sign that he is highly interested in these gifts from various girls. The more gifts he wears, the higher the prestige he obtains. Zulu beadwork necklace. Colours of beads Various forms of beadwork are found in different colour schemes. Typically, there are four different types of colour schemes: Isisshunka – white, light blue, dark green, pale yellow, pink, red, black. This colour scheme is believed to have no specific meaning.[9] Isithembu – light blue, grass green, bright yellow, red, black. This colour scheme derives from clans or clan areas. Umzansi – white, dark blue, grass green, red. This colour scheme also derives from clans or clan areas. Isinyolovane – a combination of any colours not consistent with other colour schemes. This colour scheme is often related to connotations of perfection and charm. The colours of beads might hold different meanings based on the area that they originated from. It is often that this can lead to misrepresentation or confusion when attempting to understand what the beadwork is communicating. One cannot assume that the colour system is standard across South Africa . In some areas, the colour green symbolises jealousy in a certain area, but in other areas it symbolises grass.[10] One must know the origin of the beadwork to interpret the message correctly. Clothing See also: Swenkas Interior space of a traditional beehive hut or iQhugwane Zulus wear a variety of attire, both traditional for ceremonial or culturally celebratory occasions, and modern Westernised clothing for everyday use. The women dress differently depending on whether they are single, engaged, or married. The men wore a leather belt with two strips of hide hanging down front and back. In South Africa, the miniskirt has existed since pre-colonial times. In African cultures, such as the Basotho, the Batswana, the Bapedi, the Amaswati and the AmaZulu, women wore traditional miniskirts as cultural attire. These skirts are not seen as shameless, but are used to cover the women's genitals. The skirts are called isigcebhezana and are essential in Zulu ceremonies. For example, Umemulo is a ceremony for women who turn 21 years of age. It represents a huge transition in the woman's life because it is a symbol of her being ready to accept a boyfriend and even get married. Additionally, each stage of a Zulu's life is determined by a specific type of clothing. An unmarried woman wears a skirt and nothing on top, but as she grows up, the woman starts to cover up her body because a time will come when she will be a married woman and an old woman. Nonetheless, a special type of clothing is reserved for pregnant women. When a woman is pregnant she wears an "isibamba ", a thick belt made from dried grass, covered with glass or plastic beadwork, to support her swelling stomach and its additional weight. Societal roles Men The Zulu people govern under a patriarchal society. Men are perceived as the head of the household and seen as authoritative figures. Zulu men identify themselves with great pride and dignity. They also compare themselves to qualities of powerful wild animals such as bulls, lions and elephants.[10] The men contribute to society by acting as defenders, hunters, and lovers, The Zulu men are also in charge of herding the cattle, educating themselves on the lives of disciplined warriors, creating weapons, and learning the art of stick fighting.[10] Stick fighting The art of stick fighting is a celebration of manhood for Zulu men. These men can begin to learn this fighting art form as young as the age of five years old. There are multiple reasons why men learn how to stick fight. For example, men may want to learn so that they can set right any wrongs or insults made towards them. Other reasons some men choose to learn are for sporting purposes, proving skills or manliness, and self-defence. The goal of stick fighting is to injure the opponent and sometimes even kill. There are rules of etiquette that must be abided by when stick fighting. The men can only fight a man the same age as them. One cannot hit the opponent when they lose their stick. Only sticks are allowed when fighting. Women The women in Zulu society often perform domestic chores such as cleaning, raising children, collecting water and firewood, laundry, tending to crops, cooking, and making clothes.[10] Women can be considered as the sole income earners of the household. A woman's stages of life lead up to the goal of marriage. As a woman approaches puberty, she is known as a tshitshi. A tshitshi reveals her singleness by wearing less clothing. Single women typically do not wear clothing to cover their head, breasts, legs and shoulders. Engaged women wear hairnets to show their marital status to society and married women cover themselves in clothing and headdresses Also, women are taught to defer to men and treat them with great respect. The women are always bound by a male figure. Religion and beliefs Main articles: Zulu traditional religion and Zulu Christianity Zulu worshippers at a United African Apostolic Church , near Oribi Gorge Most Zulu people state their beliefs to be Christian . Some of the most common churches to which they belong are African Initiated Churches , especially the Zion Christian Church , Nazareth Baptist Church and United African Apostolic Church , although membership of major European Churches, such as the Dutch Reformed , Anglican and Catholic Churches are also common. Nevertheless, many Zulus retain their traditional pre-Christian belief system of ancestor worship in parallel with their Christianity. Traditional Zulu religion includes belief in a creator God (uNkulunkulu) who is above interacting in day-to-day human life, although this belief appears to have originated from efforts by early Christian missionaries to frame the idea of the Christian God in Zulu terms.[14] Traditionally, the more strongly held Zulu belief was in ancestor spirits (amaThongo or amaDlozi), who had the power to intervene in people's lives, for good or ill. This belief continues to be widespread among the modern Zulu population. Traditionally, the Zulu recognize several elements to be present in a human being: the physical body (inyama yomzimba or umzimba); the breath or life force (umoya womphefumulo or umoya); and the "shadow" prestige or personality (isithunzi). Once the umoya leaves the body, the isithunzi may live on as an ancestral spirit (idlozi) only if certain conditions were met in life. Behaving with ubuntu , or showing respect and generosity towards others, enhances one's moral standing or prestige in the community, one's isithunzi. By contrast, acting in a negative way towards others can reduce the isithunzi, and the isithunzi can fade away completel Zulu sangomas (diviners) To appeal to the spirit world, a diviner (sangoma ) must invoke the ancestors through divination processes to determine the problem. Then, a herbalist (inyanga ) prepares a mixture (muthi ) to be consumed to influence the ancestors. As such, diviners and herbalists play an important part in the daily lives of the Zulu people. However, a distinction is made between white muthi (umuthi omhlope), which has positive effects, such as healing or the prevention or reversal of misfortune, and black muthi (umuthi omnyama), which can bring illness or death to others, or ill-gotten wealth to the user.[16] Users of black muthi are considered witches, and shunned by society. Christianity had difficulty gaining a foothold among the Zulu people, and when it did it was in a syncretic fashion. Isaiah Shembe , considered the Zulu Messiah , presented a form of Christianity (the Nazareth Baptist Church ) which incorporated traditional customs. Furthermore, the Zulu people also practice a ceremony called Ukweshwama . The killing of the bull is part of Ukweshwama, an annual ceremony that celebrates a new harvest. It is a day of prayer when Zulus thank their creator and their ancestors. By tradition, a new regiment of young warriors is asked to confront a bull to prove its courage, inheriting the beast's strength as it expires. It is believed this power was then transferred to the Zulu king . Bride wealth Main article: Lobolo Zulu people have a system called ilobolo. This term is particularly used by Zulu people when it comes to bride wealth. Every African ethnic group has different requirements when it comes to bride wealth . In pre-capitalist Zulu society, ilobolo was inextricably linked to the ownership of cattle. During that time, there was not a fixed number of cattle required for the wedding to happen; it could be paid before the marriage or during the marriage. The groom takes the cattle from his father's herd to perpetuate the family heritage. Nonetheless, this ritual changed during colonisation because in 1869, Theophilus Shepstone , then Natal Secretary for Native Affairs , formalized the ilobolo payment to 10 cattle for commoners (plus the ingquthu cow for the mother), 15 for hereditary chief siblings and 20-plus for the daughters of a chief. They found it too lenient to let the groom give whatever amount he wanted, so they decided to establish a specific number of cattle that would be needed before or at the start of the marriage. This has been accepted by Zulu men who were educated in mission schools, but according to more ritual people this became “untraditional”. Additionally, with the instauration of the Natal Code, some Zulu men decided to settle another way in which they could decrease the ilobo: offer a token payment or bring a present for the father of the prospective bride to decrease the ilobolo amount to be paid. The payment of ilobolo can be difficult for some families, but as it is often considered a symbol of pride and respect, many are willing to maintain this tradition as long as possible. XHOSA PEOPLE Xhosa The Xhosa tribe, with over 8 million people, is another significant tribe in South Africa. They are famous for their unique click language and their role in the struggle against apartheid. The Xhosa people have a deep connection to the land and are known for their intricate beadwork and traditional ceremonies such as the coming-of-age ritual, Ulwaluko. Relevant Data: Xhosa historian, Prof. Thandiwe Moeti, states, “The Xhosa culture is deeply rooted in storytelling and oral traditions. This has been a powerful tool for preserving our heritage and passing down wisdom from generation to generation.” he Xhosa people(/ˈkɔːsə/ KAW-sə , /ˈkoʊsə/ KOH-sə ; Xhosa pronunciation: [kǁʰɔ́ːsa] ⓘ ) are a Bantu ethnic group and nation native to South Africa . They are the second largest ethnic group in South Africa and are native speakers of the isiXhosa language . The Xhosa people are descendants of Nguni clans who settled in the Southeastern part in Southern Africa. Archaeological evidence suggests that the Xhosa people have inhabited the Eastern Cape region from as early as the 14th-century AD. Their language, IsiXhosa is over a thousand-year old. Presently, over ten million Xhosa-speaking people are distributed across Southern Africa, although their traditional homeland is primarily the Cape Province . In 1994 the self-governing countries of Transkei and Ciskei were incorporated into South Africa, becoming the Eastern Cape province. As of 2003, the majority of Xhosa speakers, approximately 5.3 million, lived in the Eastern Cape, followed by the Western Cape (approximately 1 million), Gauteng (971,045), the Free State (546,192), KwaZulu-Natal (219,826), North West (214,461), Mpumalanga (46,553), the Northern Cape (51,228), and Limpopo (14,225). There is a small but significant Xhosa-speaking (Mfengu ) community in Zimbabwe, and their language, isiXhosa, is recognised as an official national language . This community was brought by Cecil John Rhodes for cheap labour in Rhodesian mines in early 20th century.[clarification needed ] History Xhosa village in Eastern Cape. Some archaeological evidence has been discovered that suggests that Xhosa-speaking people have lived in the Eastern Cape area since at least the 7th century . The modern Xhosa are Nguni people, a stock of Bantu Origins An illustration of a group of Xhosa people by Thomas Baines (illustrated in 1848). The Xhosa people are descendants of the ancestors of Ngunis. Xhosa oral history also mentions a historical settlement called 'Eluhlangeni' believed to have been in East Africa in which the Ngunis lived in for some time before continuing with their migration. Upon crossing mountains and rivers in South Africa, these farm-working agro-pastoralists brought their cattle and goats with them and absorbed the weaker San groups in the region. They also brought weapons, notably their assegais and their shields and would form groups or chiefdoms and kingdoms mainly in what is now the Eastern Cape . Xhosa shield Kingdom Xhosa spearman According to oral tradition, the modern Xhosa Kingdom was founded somewhere before the 15th century by Tshawe (whom the royal clan of the Xhosas is named after) who overthrew his brother Cirha (assisted by his brother Jwarha) with the help of the amaNgwevu clan of the amaMpondomise Kingdom. Tshawe and his army then incorporated formerly independent Nguni clans into the Xhosa Kingdom. Khoekhoe tribes were incorporated, including the Inqua, the Giqwa, and the amaNgqosini (both Khoi and Sotho origin). Formerly independent clans (many of Khoekhoe origin) and chiefdoms in the region became tributary to the amaTshawe and spoke isiXhosa as their primary language. The Xhosa polity achieved political ascendancy over most of the Cape Khoe extending to the very fringes of the Cape Peninsula.[8] With the settlement of the Cape by Europeans in 1652, the native populations were gradually pushed eastwards until, in the 1700s, the borders of the Cape Colony had pushed populations far enough east (with relations between colonist and native significantly broken down) to create a critical mass of hostile population to resist the colonists in the Eastern Cape. This sparked off the Cape frontier wars , which represent some of the longest military resistance to colonialism. The historical end result would be the containment of large portions of the Cape native population into native reserves in the Easternmost part of the Cape. However, these populations would also continually serve as labour inside the Cape Colony. These native reserves would be re-branded "homelands" in the 20th century and would only be fully dismantled in 1994, with populations moving back into the wider Cape. Skirmish during the Xhosa Wars In the 19th century, the Xhosas fought and repulsed many tribes that were escaping the Zulus in the Colony of Natal , this was during the historical mfecane . Those who were accepted were assimilated into the Xhosa cultural way of life and followed Xhosa traditions.[citation needed ] The Xhosas called these various tribes AmaMfengu , meaning wanderers, and were made up of clans such as the amaBhaca , amaBhele , amaHlubi , amaZizi and Rhadebe. To this day, the descendants of the amaMfengu are part of the Xhosa people and they speak isiXhosa and practice the Xhosa culture.[citation needed ] Xhosa unity and ability to fight off colonial encroachment was to be weakened by the famines and political divisions that followed the cattle-killing movement of 1856–1858 . Historians now view this movement as a millennialist response, both directly to a lung disease spreading among Xhosa cattle at the time, and less directly to the stress to Xhosa society caused by the continuing loss of their territory and autonomy. Some historians argue that this early absorption into the wage economy is the ultimate origin of the long history of trade union membership and political leadership among Xhosa people.[citation needed ] That history manifests itself today in high degrees of Xhosa representation in the leadership of the African National Congress (ANC), South Africa's ruling political party in the government . Language Main article: Xhosa language Map of South Africa showing the primary Xhosa language speech area in green Xhosa is an agglutinative tonal language categorized under Bantu linguistic classification. While the Xhosas call their language "isiXhosa", it is usually referred to as "Xhosa" in English. Written Xhosa uses a Latin alphabet –based system. Xhosa is spoken by about 18% of the South African population, and has some mutual intelligibility with Zulu, especially Zulu spoken in urban areas. Many Xhosa speakers, particularly those living in urban areas, also speak Zulu and/or Afrikaans and/or English. Rites of passage Further information: Xhosa clan names The Xhosa are a South African cultural group who emphasise traditional practices and customs inherited from their forefathers. Each person within the Xhosa culture has their place which is recognised by the entire community. Starting from birth, a Xhosa person goes through graduation stages which recognise their growth and assign them a recognised place in the community. Each stage is marked by a specific ritual aimed at introducing the individual to their counterparts and also to their ancestors. Starting from imbeleko, a ritual performed to introduce a new born to the ancestors, to umphumo (the homecoming), from inkwenkwe (a boy) to indoda (a man). These rituals and ceremonies are sacrosanct to the identity and heritage of the Xhosa and other African descendants. Though some western scholars question the relevance of these practices today, even urbanised Xhosa people do still follow them. The ulwaluko and intonjane are also traditions which separated this tribe from the rest of the Nguni tribes. These are performed to mark the transition from child to adulthood. Zulus once performed the ritual but King Shaka stopped it because of war in the 1810s. In 2009, it was reintroduced by King Goodwill Zwelithini Zulu, not as a custom, but as a medical procedure to curb HIV infections. All these rituals are symbolic of one's development. Before each is performed, the individual spends time with community elders to prepare for the next stage. The elders' teachings are not written, but transmitted from generation to generation by oral tradition. The iziduko (clan) for instance—which matters most to the Xhosa identity (even more than names and surnames) are transferred from one to the other through oral tradition. Knowing your isiduko is vital to the Xhosas and it is considered a shame and uburhanuka (lack-of-identity) if one doesn't know one's clan. This is considered so important that when two strangers meet for the first time, the first identity that gets shared is isiduko. It is so important that two people with the same surname but different clan names are considered total strangers, but two people from the same clan but with different surnames are regarded as close relatives. This forms the roots of ubuntu (human kindness) – a behaviour synonymous to this tribe as extending a helping hand to a complete stranger when in need. Ubuntu goes further than just helping one another – it is so deep that it even extends to looking after and reprimanding your neighbour's child when in the wrong. Hence the saying "it takes a village to raise a child". One traditional ritual that is still regularly practiced is the manhood ritual, a secret rite that marks the transition from boyhood to manhood, ulwaluko . After ritual circumcision , the initiates (abakwetha) live in isolation for up to several weeks, often in the mountains. During the process of healing they smear white clay on their bodies and observe numerous customs. In modern times the practice has caused controversy, with over 825 circumcision- and initiation-related deaths since 1994, and the spread of sexually transmitted infections , including HIV , via the practice of circumcising initiates with the same blade. In March 2007, a controversial mini-series dealing with Xhosa circumcision and initiation rites debuted on South African Broadcasting Corporation . Titled Umthunzi Wentaba, the series was taken off the air after complaints by traditional leaders that the rites are secret and not to be revealed to non-initiates and women. In January 2014 the website ulwaluko.co.za was released by a Dutch medical doctor. It features a gallery of photographs of injured penises, which sparked outrage amongst traditional leaders in the Eastern Cape. The South African Film and Publication Board ruled that the website was "scientific with great educative value", addressing a "societal problem needing urgent intervention". Girls are also initiated into womanhood (Intonjane). They too are secluded, though for a shorter period. Female initiates are not circumcised . Other rites include the seclusion of mothers for ten days after giving birth, and the burial of the afterbirth and umbilical cord near the village. This is reflected in the traditional greeting Inkaba yakho iphi?, literally "where is your navel?" The answer "tells someone where you live, what your clan affiliation is, and what your social status is and contains a wealth of undisclosed cultural information. Most importantly, it determines where you belong". Rituals surrounding umtshato (Xhosa marriage) Xhosa marriage, umtshato, is one that is filled with a number of customs and rituals which relate to the upkeep of Xhosa traditional practices. These rituals have been practiced for decades by the Xhosa people and have been incorporated into modern day Xhosa marriages as well. The purpose of the practices is to bring together two different families and to give guidance to the newly wed couple throughout. Ukuthwalwa To start off the procedures the male intending to marry goes through Ukuthwalwa which entails him choosing his future bride and making his intentions of marriage known, however this practice was not done by all the tribes within the Xhosa people. In modern day, the man and woman would most likely have been in courtship or a relationship prior to Ukuthwalwa. Decades before Ukuthwalwa would entail legal bridal abduction, where the man could choose a woman of his liking to be his bride and go into negotiations with the family of the bride without her knowledge or consent. She would have to abide to the marriage as per tradition. Isiduko Following Ukuthwala, the man will then be in discussion with his parents or relatives to inform them of his choice in bride. During this discussion the clan name, isiduko, of the woman would be revealed and researched. If it were found that the woman and the man share the same clan name they would not be allowed to proceed with the marriage as it is said that people with the same clan name are of the same relation and cannot be wed. Once discussions with the family are complete and satisfactory information about the woman is acquired then the family of the man will proceed to appoint marriage negotiators. It is these very negotiators that will travel to the family of the woman to make known the man and his intentions. Once the negotiators reach the family of the woman they will be kept in the kraal, inkundla, of the woman's family. If the family does not possess a kraal they will simply be kept outside the household as they will not be allowed to enter the household without the acknowledgment and acceptance of the woman's family. It is here where the lobola (dowry ) negotiations will begin. The family of the woman will give them a bride-price and a date for which they must return to pay that price. The bride-price is dependent on numerous things such as her level of education, the wealth status of her family in comparison to that of the man's family, what the man stands to gain in the marriage and the overall desirability of the woman. The payment of the bride-price could be in either cattle or money depending on the family of the woman. The modern Xhosa families would rather prefer money as most are situated in the urban cities where there would be no space nor permits for livestock. Upon return of the man's family on the given date, they will pay the bride-price and bring along gifts of offering such as livestock and alcoholic beverages, iswazi, to be drunk by the family of the bride. Once the lobola from the man's negotiators is accepted then they will be considered married by the Xhosa tradition and the celebrations would commence. These include slaughtering of the livestock as a grateful gesture to their ancestors as well as pouring a considerable amount of the alcoholic beverages on the ground of the bride's household to give thanks to their ancestors. The groom's family is then welcomed into the family and traditional beer, Umqombothi , will be prepared for the groom's family as a token of appreciation from the bride's family. Ukuyalwa To solidify their unity the family of the bride will head to the groom's household where the elders will address her with regards to how to carry herself and dress appropriately at her newly found household, this is called Ukuyalwa. Furthermore, a new name will also be given to her by the women of the groom's family and this name signifies the bond of the two families. Xhosa burial practices Burial practices and customs include a specific sequence of events and rituals which need to be performed in order to regard a funeral as dignified. Once the family has been notified that a member has died, the extended family comes together in preparation for the burial of the deceased. The "umkhapho" (to accompany) ritual is performed in order to accompany the spirit of the deceased to the land of the ancestors. The local male clan leader or his proxy is the one who facilitates the process. The purpose of umkhapho is to keep the bonds between the deceased person and the bereaved alive so that the deceased may be able to return later and communicate as an ancestor. During this ritual, an animal such as a goat is slaughtered. A larger animal like a cow may also be slaughtered for an important person like a head of the family whilst a goat without a blemish may be slaughtered for others. Further customs include the emptying the main bedroom of the bereaving family, known as 'indlu enkulu'. This room is where most of the last respects will be paid by family and friends. The emptying of the room is done in order to create space for extended family members to be able to mourn in the main room. The first family members and/or neighbours to arrive arrange the main bedroom to accommodate this seating arrangement by placing a traditional grass mat (ukhukho) or mattress on the floor. Mourners do not require an invitation to attend a funeral and everyone who can and would like to attend is welcome. This means that the bereaved family has to cater for an unknown number of mourners. Traditionally, mourners were fed with 'inkobe', which is boiled dried corn and water, and the corn was taken from the family food reserves as well as donated by family members and neighbours. In the 21st century, it is regarded as taboo to feed mourners with 'inkobe' and, as a result of shame, funeral catering has become a lucrative business for the industry during burial events. Xhosa woman preparing food for large groups of people On the day of burial, before extended family members disperse to their homes, the ukuxukuxa (cleansing) ritual occurs and a goat or sheep or even a fowl is slaughtered. A cleansing ritual is done the day after the burial, in which the bereaved women of the family go to the nearest river to wash all the materials and blankets that were used by the deceased before death. Furthermore, the clothes of the deceased are removed from the house and the family members shave their hair. The shaving of hair is an indication that life continues to spring up even after death.[25] Traditional diet The Xhosa settled on mountain slopes of the Amatola and the Winterberg Mountains. Many streams drain into great rivers of this Xhosa territory, including the Kei and Fish Rivers. Rich soils and plentiful rainfall make the river basins good for farming and grazing making cattle important and the basis of wealth. Traditional foods include beef (Inyama yenkomo), mutton (Inyama yegusha), and goat meat (Inyama yebhokwe), sorghum , milk (often fermented , called "amasi "), pumpkins (amathanga), Mielie-meal (maize meal), samp (umngqusho), beans (iimbotyi), vegetables , like "rhabe", wild spinach reminiscent of sorrel , "imvomvo", the sweet sap of an aloe , or "ikhowa", a mushroom that grows after summer rains. Xhosa cuisine See also: Typical South African foods and dishes Xhosa beer Umqombothi in Langa Amaceba , slices of unpeeled pumpkins that are cooked in plenty of water. Amarhewu or mageu , soft and sour porridge Iinkobe , peeled off fresh maize grains, and boiled until cooked. It is eaten as a snack, preferably with salt. Isidudu , a soft porridge made mealie meal. It is usually served for breakfast, with sugar and milk. Intyabontyi , a citron melon with white insides, eaten either raw or cooked. Isophi , corn with beans or peas soup Umcuku , fermented porridge [amarhewu], sour, slightly soft than porridge itself, mixed with dry pap [umphokoqo]; was popular in the 1900s. Umleqwa , a dish made with free-range chicken . Umngqusho , a dish made from white maize and sugar beans, a staple food for the Xhosa people. Umphokoqo , crumble pap Umqombothi , a type of beer made from fermented maize and sorghum. Umvubo , (Amasi)sour milk mixed with umphokoqo, commonly eaten by the Xhosa. Umbhako , a loaf of bread, commonly made with homemade dough. Normally round, from baking pots Umfino , Wild Spinach/Cabbage called imifino, spinach mixed with mealie meal. Umqa , a dish made of pumpkin and mielie meal (maize meal) Umxoxozi , a pumpkin that is cooked before it is fully ripened. Art Xhosa women's outfit, made from cotton blanket fabric coloured with red ochre and decorated with glass beads, mother of pearl buttons and black felt trim Traditional crafts include bead-work, weaving, woodwork and pottery. Traditional music features drums, rattles, whistles, flutes, mouth harps, and stringed-instruments and especially group singing accompanied by hand clapping. There are songs for various ritual occasions; one of the best-known Xhosa songs is a wedding song called "Qongqothwane ", performed by Miriam Makeba as "Click Song #1". Besides Makeba, several modern groups record and perform in Xhosa. Missionaries introduced the Xhosa to Western choral singing.[citation needed ] "Nkosi Sikelel' iAfrika ", part of the National anthem of South Africa is a Xhosa hymn written in 1897 by Enoch Sontonga . The first newspapers , novels, and plays in Xhosa appeared in the 19th century, and Xhosa poetry is also gaining renown. Xhosa village in Eastern Cape. Several films have been shot in the Xhosa language. U-Carmen eKhayelitsha is a modern remake of Bizet 's 1875 opera Carmen . It is shot entirely in Xhosa, and combines music from the original opera with traditional African music. It takes place in the Cape Town township of Khayelitsha . The movie Black Panther also features the Xhosa language. Xhosa beadwork Beads are small round objects made of glass, wood, metal, nutshell, bone seed and the likes, which are then pierced for stringing.[28] Before glass beads were introduced, people used natural materials to make beads. Xhosa people relied on the San to sell beads to them through trade or barter exchange. Xhosa people would give hemp to the San in exchange for beads. The beads made by the San were made out of ostrich egg shells which were chipped to small size, bored and polished and strung into sinews. Producing them took a long time, so they were scarce, highly priced, valued and in demand. It is recorded that it was only in the 1930s that the Portuguese introduced glass beads through trade. Xhosa beadwork and its symbolism Adornments serve a particular purpose across different cultures as social markers . They are used to ascertain where one belongs to with regards to identity, history and geographical location. They reveal personal information with regards to age and gender and social class as some beads were meant to be worn by royalty. Beadwork creates a sense of belonging and cultural identity and traditions hence people draw their cultural ways of living and meanings, as Xhosa people use them as social markers. Xhosa people believe that the beads also create a link between the living and the ancestors as diviners use them during rituals. Thus beads have some spiritual significance.[29] Social identities/markers with regards to age, gender, grade, marital status, social rank or role and the spiritual state can be ascertained through Xhosa beadwork. Symbolic references are drawn from the beads through the colour, pattern, formation and motifs. However, it ought to be taken into cognisance that some of these messages are limited to a certain group or between two people. In Xhosa culture beads represent the organisational framework of the people and the rites of passage that people have gone through as the beads are representative of the stages of one's life. Motifs on the beads often used include trees, diamonds, quadrangles, chevrons, triangles, circles, parallel lines that form a pattern that is exclusive to certain age groups. Although the beadwork has some cultural significance with certain motifs having exclusive meanings, the creator of the beadwork has creative control and can create and draw meaning from individual preference. Thus the meanings drawn from the beadwork are not rigidly set. Among the Thembu (a tribe in the Eastern Cape often erroneously referred to be a Xhosa tribe), after circumcision, the men wore, and still wear, skirts, turbans and a wide bead collar. A waistcoat, long necklaces, throat bands, armbands, leggings and belts are part of his regalia. The dominant colours in the beadwork are white and navy blue, with some yellow and green beads symbolising fertility and a new life, respectively.[29] Xhosa people regard white as the colour of purity and mediation; white beads are still used as offerings to spirits or to the creator. Amagqirha/diviners use white beads when communicating with the ancestors . These diviners also carry with them beaded spears, which are associated with the ancestors that inspire the diviner; beaded horns; and calabashes, to hold medicinal products or snuff. "Amageza", a veil made of beads, is also part of their regalia, they use these beads by swaying them in someone's eyes so as to induce a trance-like state. Inkciyo is a beaded skirt that serves as a garment covering the pubic area. Among the Pondo people (Xhosa clan) the beads are turquoise and white in colour. This skirt is worn during a virginity testing ceremony among Xhosa people undergoing their rites of passage into womanhood. Impempe is a whistle that has a necklace on it. The whistle symbolises one's introduction to adolescence. Xhosa beadwork and other cultural beadworks have cultural ties, but nowadays beads are also worn as fashion pieces, too, either as cultural appreciation or appropriation. The use of cultural beadworks as fashion pieces means that anyone can wear these pieces without having to belong to that cultural group. Clothing The Xhosa culture has a traditional dress code informed by the individuals social standing portraying different stages of life. The 'red blanket people' (Xhosa people) have a custom of wearing red blankets dyed with red ochre, the intensity of the colour varying from tribe to tribe. Other clothing includes beadwork and printed fabrics. Although in general, Xhosa lifestyle has been adapted to Western traditions, the Xhosa people still wear traditional attire for special cultural activities. The various tribes have their own variations of traditional dress which includes the colour of their garments and beadwork. This allows for different Xhosa groups to be able to be distinguishable from one another due to their different styles of dress. The Gcaleka women, for instance, encase their arms and legs in beads and brass bangles and some also wear neck beads. Women Unmarried women often wear wraps tied around their shoulders, leaving their breasts exposed. Engaged women redden their plaited hair and let it screen their eyes, this was done as a sign of respect for their fiancés. Xhosa women wear some form of headdress to cover their heads as a sign of respect to the head of the family which is either their father or husband. Elderly Xhosa women are allowed to wear more elaborate headpieces because of their seniority. Description Incebetha is a small blanket that is used as a bra. It is pinned or adorned with beads. The process of making 'incebetha' is called 'uRhaswa'. 'Ifulu' is a garment that is worn underneath, below the belt. 'Ifulu' is covered by the 'isikhakha' or 'umbhaco' and is made of a blanket. It is also adorned with beads through 'urhaswa'. 'Iqhiya' is a cloth that is fitted to the head and covered with beads. Women then wear a small and light weight blanket on the waist called 'uxakatha'. Women make bracelets with beads, called 'intsimbi' or 'amaso', which they wear on their feet. 'Intsimbi' or 'amaso' is also worn around the waist. 'Intsimbi' or 'amaso' is made with small wires or flexible material. 'Imitsheke' is worn on the wrist. A small hand bag is worn called 'ingxowa'. Men Xhosa men resting during a hunt. Xhosa men traditionally filled the roles as hunters, warriors and stockman, therefore animal skin forms an important part of their traditional wear. Men often wear goatskin bags in which to carry essentials such as tobacco and a knife. The bag is usually made from skin that had been removed in one piece, cured without removing the hair, and turned inside out. On special occasions such as weddings or initiation ceremonies, Xhosa men wear embroidered skirts with a rectangular cloth over the left shoulder alternatively, a tunic and strands of beaded necklaces can be worn. Description Men wear 'ingcawa' a white and black blanket, adorned with 'ukurhaswa'. Men wear beads around their neck. 'Isichebe' is a short bead while 'Isidanga' is a long bead necklace with different colors. Men wear beads around their wrists and foot called 'amaso'. Beads that are worn on the head are called 'unngqa' or 'igwala'. Men smoke pipes that are decorated by 'ukurhaswa'. The traditional smoking pipes are called 'umbheka phesheya'. Xhosas in modern society This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2011) Modern Xhosa attire. Xhosa man, Eastern Cape. Xhosa girl. Xhosa people as of 2011 made up approximately 18% of the South African population. The Xhosa are the second largest cultural group in South Africa, after the Zulu people . Under apartheid , adult literacy rates were as low as 30%,[citation needed ] and in 1996 studies estimated the literacy level of first-language Xhosa speakers at approximately 50%. There have been advances since then, however.[citation needed ] Education in primary-schools serving Xhosa-speaking communities is conducted in Xhosa , but this is replaced by English after the early primary grades. Xhosa is still considered as a studied subject, however, and it is possible to major in Xhosa at university level. Most of the students at Walter Sisulu University and University of Fort Hare speak Xhosa. Rhodes University in Grahamstown, additionally, offers courses in Xhosa for both mother-tongue and non-mother-tongue speakers. These courses both include a cultural studies component. Professor Russel H. Kaschula, Head of the School of Languages at Rhodes, has published multiple papers on Xhosa culture and oral literature. The effects of government policies during the years of apartheid can still be seen in the poverty of the Xhosa who still reside in the Eastern Cape. During this time, Xhosa males could only seek employment in the mining industry as so-called migrant labourers. Since the collapse of apartheid, individuals can move freely. After the breakdown of apartheid, migration to Gauteng and Cape Town has become increasingly common, especially amongst rural Xhosa people SWAZI PEOPLE Swazi The Swazi tribe, also known as the Eswatini, is one of the smallest tribes in South Africa. They have a monarchy system of government and hold their king, the Ngwenyama, in high regard. The Swazi people are known for their beautiful traditional dances and colorful festivals. Expert Perspective: Dr. Nomkhosi Dlamini, cultural anthropologist, states, “The Swazi people have managed to preserve their cultural practices despite external influences. This resilience is a testament to the importance of cultural identity in the face of adversity.” The Swazi or Swati (Swati : Emaswati, singular Liswati) are a Bantu ethnic group native to Southern Africa , inhabiting Eswatini , a sovereign kingdom in Southern Africa, and South Africa 's Mpumalanga province . AmaSwati are part of the Nguni-language speaking peoples whose origins can be traced through archaeology to East Africa where similar traditions, beliefs and cultural practices are found. The Swati people and the Kingdom of Eswatini today are named after Mswati II , who became king in 1839 after the death of his father King Sobhuza. Eswatini was a region first occupied by the San people and the current Swazis migrated from north East Africa through to Mozambique and eventually settled in Eswatini in the 15th century. Their royal lineage can be traced to a chief named Dlamini I; this is still the royal clan name. About three-quarters of the clan groups are Nguni ; the remainder are Sotho , Tsonga , others North East African and San descendants. These groups have intermarried freely. Swazi identity extends to all those with allegiance to the twin monarchs Ingwenyama "the Lion" (the king) and Indlovukati "the She-Elephant" (the queen mother). The dominant Swati language and culture are factors that unify Swatis as a nation. History amaSwati are native to Southern Africa. The term bakaNgwane ("Ngwane's people") is still used as an alternative to emaSwati, to refer to the Swati people. EmaSwati are people who are predominantly descended from Nguni-language speakers. However some of the Swati people originate from Sotho clans who were also inhabitants of Eswatini. Under the leadership of Dlamini III who took over from the Maseko and settlement took place in 1750, along the Pongola River where it cuts through the Lubombo mountains . Later on, they moved into a region on the Pongola River , which was in close proximity to the Ndwandwe people . Dlamini III's successor was Ngwane III , who is considered the first King of modern Eswatini. He ruled from around 1745 until 1780 at the Shiselweni region of Eswatini. In 1815, Sobhuza I became the king of Eswatini and was responsible for the establishment of Swati power in central Eswatini. Here the Swati people continued the process of expansion by conquering numerous small Sotho and Nguni-speaking tribes to build up a large composite state today called Eswatini. Sobhuza I 's rule occurred during the Mfecane . Under Sobhuza's leadership, the Nguni and Sotho peoples as well as remnant San groups were integrated into the Swati nation. It was during his rule that the present boundaries of Eswatini were fully under the rule of the Dlamini kings. In the late 1830s, initial contact occurred with the Boers , who were settling in the territory that would become the South African Republic . A substantial portion of Swati territory was ceded to the Transvaal Boers who settled around the Lydenburg area in the 1840s. The territory of Eswatini, and their king, Mswati II , were recognized by both the Transvaal and Britain. It was during the rule of Mswati II that the Swati nation was unified. Thereafter, the label "Swati" eventually was applied to all the peoples who gave allegiance to the Ingwenyama . Later under Mbandzeni , many commercial, land, and mining concessions were granted to British and Boer settlers. This move led to further loss of land to the South African Republic. The result was that a substantial Swati population ended up residing outside Eswatini in South Africa. The Pretoria Convention for the Settlement of the Transvaal in 1881 recognized the independence of Eswatini and defined its boundaries. The Ngwenyama was not a signatory, and the Swazi claim that their territory extends in all directions from the present state. Britain claimed authority over Eswatini in 1903, and independence was regained in 1968. Today, Swati people reside in both Eswatini and South Africa. People of Swati descent in South Africa are typically identifiable by speaking siSwati , or a dialect of that language. There are also many Swati migrants in South Africa and the United Kingdom. The number of emaSwati in South Africa is slightly larger than that of emaSwati in Eswatini, which is approximately 1.2 million people. In modern-day Eswatini, Swati people include all Eswatini citizens regardless of their ethnicity. Identity The Kings of Eswatini date back to some considerable time to when the royal line of Dlamini lived in the vicinity of Delagoa Bay . The Swazi people as a nation were originally formed by 17 clans known as bemdzabuko ("true Swazi") who accompanied the Dlamini kings in the early days. The 17 founding clans were Dlamini, Nhlabathi, Hlophe, Kunene, Mabuza, Madvonsela, Mamba, Matsebula, Mdluli, Motsa, Ngwenya, Shongwe, Sukati, Tsabedze, Tfwala, Mbokane and Zwane. Other Swazi clans are the Emakhandzambili clans ("those found ahead", e.g. the Gamedze, Fakudze, Ngcamphalala and Magagula), meaning that they were on the land prior to Dlamini immigration and conquest. The Emafikemuva ("those who came behind") who joined the kingdom later. Culture Main article: Culture of Eswatini Princess Sikhanyiso dancing at umhlanga A Swazi woman dancing Dancing and singing, including praise-singing, are prominent in Swazi culture. Pottery and carving were minor arts. Swazi traditional marriage is called umtsimba ; it is usually on a weekend in the dry season (June to August). The bride and her relatives go to the groom's homestead on Friday evening. On Saturday morning, the bridal party sit by a nearby river and eat goat or cow meat offered by the groom's family; in the afternoon, they dance in the groom's homestead. On Sunday morning, the bride, with her female relatives, stabs the ground with a spear at the groom's cattle kraal ; later she is smeared with red ochre . The smearing is the high point of marriage: no woman can be smeared twice. The bride presents gifts to her husband and his relatives. Umhlanga is one of the most well-known cultural events in Eswatini held in August/September for young unmarried girls to pay homage to the Ndlovukati . Incwala is another Swazi cultural event held in December/January, depending on the phases of the moon. This ceremony, also known as the "First Fruits" ceremony, marks the King's tasting of the new harvest.[4] Religion The traditional Swazi religion recognizes a supreme God/creator in its pure form while the ancestors are recognized. The Swazi religion is based on a creator known as Mvelincanti (he who was there from the beginning). Most Swazis intertwine this belief with modern day Christianity that was brought by the missionaries. Many continue to practice their traditional spiritual beliefs. Spiritual rituals are performed at the level of family associated with birth, death and marriage. NDEBELE PEOPLE Ndebele The Ndebele tribe is known for its vibrant and colorful traditional attire. Their distinctive geometric patterns and beadwork are a visual representation of their cultural identity. The Ndebele people have a close-knit community and value their traditions and customs. Insight: Ndebele artist, Sipho Mabena, shares, “Our art is not just decorative; it tells a story of our history and struggles. It is a way for us to express ourselves and keep our culture alive.” AmaNdebele are an ethnic group native to South Africa who speak isiNdebele . The group is separate from the Northern Ndebele who broke away from the Zulu during Tshaka 's time. They mainly inhabit the provinces of Mpumalanga , Gauteng and Limpopo , all of which are in the northeast of the country. In academia this ethnic group is referred to as the Southern Ndebele to differentiate it from their relatives the Northern Ndebele people of Limpopo and Northwest . History Prehistory The history of the Ndebele people begin with the Bantu Migrations southwards from the Great Lakes region of East Africa. Bantu speaking peoples moved across the Limpopo river into modern day South Africa and over time assimilated and conquered the indigenous San people in the North Eastern regions of South Africa. At the time of the collapse of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe in 1450, Two main groups had emerged south of the Limpopo River : the Nguni , who occupied the eastern coastal plains, and the Sotho–Tswana , who lived on the interior plateau. Between the 1400s and early 1800s saw these two groups split into smaller distinct cultures and people. The Ndebele were just such a people. Among the Hlubi Chief Ndebele was living with his people in the territory of the Bhaca and Hlubi south of the Drakensberg Mountains which they called "uKhahlamba". The capital settlement in this territory was called eLundini. Chief Ndebele had broken away from the larger Mbo group and established his own rule over his own people who would take his name as the name of their nation. Jonono, the great-grandson of Ndebele moved north with his people and settled in the area just north east of modern-day Ladysmith in the mountains surrounding the mouth of the Cwembe River . Jononoskop which is approximately 30 km (19 mi) north east of Ladysmith is said to be the burial place of Jonono. Jonono was succeeded as "INgwenyama" which is the title of the King of the Ndebele, by his eldest son Nanasi who legend holds, was resistant to all poisons. One tale tells of how Nanasi feasted on the top of a nearby hill on poisonous fruit only to discover that he remained unharmed by the fruit. Today the alleged site is called "Butiswini" from ubuthi esiswini which roughly means 'a poisoned stomach'. Oral tradition does not tell us why Nanasi was eating poisonous fruit in the first place. Migration to north of the Vaal river Nanasi died without issue and so Mafana his brother succeeded him as Ngwenyama. Mafana is said to have lived in the mid-1500s. Mafana moved his people from their lands near Ladysmith moving in a north westward direction crossing first the Drakensberg Mountains and then made an attempt to cross the Vaal River . He was unsuccessful and drowned in the river along with a few others. After the death of his father Mafana, Mhlanga assumed the throne and took his people over the Vaal River travelling in a north westward direction finally settling in an area around modern day Randfontein . Mhlanga established a new capitol that was later called eMhlangeni(now known as Mehlakeng), which means Mhlanga's place, and there he stayed with the Ndebele until his death. Musi, the son of Mhlanga succeeded his father as Ngwenyama of the Ndebele people. While at eMhlangeni, Musi found the area becoming increasingly hostile from the Sotho-Tswana tribes to the west that had not taken kindly to the Nguni Ndebele settling so close to their borders. Ultimately due the competing of resources, Musi uprooted the Ndebele once again and moved his people northwards crossing first the Jukskei River then the Hennops River . After discovering the source of the Apies River , Musi's Ndebele moved north along its banks through Wonderboompoort and settled in the hills north of Wonderboomkop on both side of the Apies River. Here Musi established two settlements. The first of which "KwaMnyamana" (The Place of Black Rocks) served as a new capitol for the Ndebele and was situated on the eastern side of the Apies river. The second settlement was that of "eMaruleni" (Named for the abundance of Marula fruit trees), which was situated on the western side of the Apies river. Here at KwaMnyamana, Musi's Ndebele would establish a thriving homeland for themselves trading with BaKwena and BaKgatla tribes in the west. Musi's people also encountered the indigenous nomadic San people living along the Apies River whom they called "AbaTshwa" which is said to mean "The People who we ignore". Manala-Ndzundza conflict Musi was a polygamist and as such fathered many children with many wives. The following are some of Musi's known progeny: Masombuka, also called Sikhosana whose name means "to begin". First born son of Musi's third wife. Ndzundza, also called Hlungwana was the first born son of his second wife. Manala, also called Mbuduma was the first born son of his 'Great Wife'. There was also Thombeni, also called Gheghana, Sibasa, Mrhwaduba, Mphafuli, Dlomu, and Tshwane, whose historicity is hotly debated with many suggesting he was not the son of Musi but the son of Musi's brother Sekhubatane or even Musi's grandson. There are others who even suggest that he may have never existed at all. According to Ndebele tradition, it is custom for the first born son of the 'Great Wife' to succeed his father as ruler over the Ndebele people. The first born of Musi's great wife was Manala. Thus Manala was the rightful heir to the ruling seat of the Ndebele. This did not sit well with Musi's second wife whose son Ndzundza was born first before Manala. Oral tradition on the many details of the following vary from community to community however what is mostly agreed upon is that when Musi was old, he was blind and quite senile. After the death of his great wife he was being nursed and cared for by his second wife. This second wife, sensing the passing of Musi was near, instructed Manala to go out and hunt an 'imbuduma' (Wildebeest ) to honour his father in his last days. While Manala was out, Musi's second wife came to him and presented her son Ndzundza as Manala and asked Musi to bestow to Ndzundza the "iNamrhali" which it is said, are magical beads or a magical staff that produce a sound that mimics the cries of a child. This mysterious gift was passed from incumbent rulers to their successors at their death to fortify their rule as the new ruler. Alternate oral tradition holds that Musi himself sent Manala to hunt the imbuduma and knowingly bestowed iNamrhali to Ndzundza and instructed him to call an "Imbizo" (Royal counsel) and inform the elders and the people of what had transpired between him and his father. Ndzundza was further instructed to not leave KwaMnyamana at any cost. That if he should leave the seat of power, even having iNamrhali would not be enough to consolidate his power as the new ruler over the people and that his brother Manala would surely uses the forces of KwaMnyamana to seek retribution. While it is debated how Ndzundza had obtained iNamrhali, the one consistent fact remained in almost all stories that Ndzundza was indeed in possession of iNamrhali at this point. Ndzundza did not head the warning of his father and fled eastwards with many followers including his brothers Mthombeni and Masombuka . Manala arrived with his hunt to find his father had died and Ndzundza with iNamrhali along with many followers had fled. Manala himself called an Imbizo declaring that Ndzundza had stolen iNamrhali and thus his birthright. He vowed to bring Ndzundza back to KwaMnyamana or kill him. Manala with his army pursued Ndzundza and caught up with him at MaSongololo (Zonkolol) Between modern day Cullinan and Rayton . There they fought a battle between two branches of the Elands River . Ndzundza had narrowly claimed victory in this first battle and rather than staying in the area he fled with his forces further eastward. Manala pursued again and again lost to Ndzundza's forces in a battle at the Wilge River . It is said that at this battle, Ndzundza used iNamrhali to cast a magical spell over the river causing it to wash away some of Manala's forces. After this second defeat, Manala retreated back to KwaMnyamana to replenish their provisions and numbers. Manala and his army then continued to chase Ndzundza until they met at the Olifants River were a third battle ensued. Ndzundza allegedly cast the first blow, throwing a spear over the river towards Manala which landed at his feet. It was then that oral tradition holds that at the moment Manala had the upper hand to kill his brother Ndzundza, a "long breasted" old woman named Noqoli from the Mnguni family stepped in and scolded the brothers for fighting. She proceeded to call a meeting to mediate peace between the two brothers. The outcome of this meeting was that henceforth there would be two kings of the Ndebele people. Ndzundza would hold Musi's iNamrhali and be recognised as his own king within the Ndebele kingdom, and Manala would continue to rule as the senior king from Musi's capital of KwaMnyamana (Wonderboom) and the Olifants River would be the border separating the two powers within the greater Ndebele Kingdom. The agreement further stated that the brothers may never again fight. That great misfortune would follow the Ndebele people should they transgress the agreement which came to be known as "isiVumelano sakoNoQoli" (Noqoli's agreement). To show their commitment to honour Noqoli's agreement, it was decided that Manala's daughters and descendants would marry the daughters and descendants of Ndzundza and vice versa. This practice would later die out. Noqoli and her descendants were honoured with the title Msiza. This story bears great resemblance to the biblical story of Jacob and Esau which features in The Book of Genesis from Chapters 27 through to 33 telling of Esau 's loss of his birthright to Jacob and the conflict that ensued between their descendants nations because of Jacob's deception of their aged and blind father, Isaac , in order to receive Esau's birthright/blessing from Isaac. There has been much debate over the past few centuries about the exact details of isiVumelwano sakoNoQoli. This debate boiled over into a legal feud between Enoch Mabhena Makhosoke II of the Manala and Mbusi Mahlangu Mabhoko III of the Ndzundza over who holds the most senior position in the Ndebele kingdom. The matter was settled with the Nhlapo Commission onto Traditional leadership and claims which in 2010 declared Mabhena as the senior king of the Ndebele. In November 2010, former President of South Africa Jacob Zuma caused controversy when he overturned the Nhlapo Commissions finding and declared Mahlangu to be the senior king of the Ndebele. This was later rectified in 2017, High Court and Makhosonke II was legally entrenched as the senior king of the Ndebele People of South Africa. Post Ndebele Schism The remaining sons of Musi all went their separate ways after the Manala-Ndzundza conflict. Thombeni and Masombuka relocated with their brother Ndzundza to east of the Olifants River . Thombeni (Gheghana) continued on with his people north and settled at the confluence of the Mgoto and Nkumpi rivers in what is today Moletlane. Thombeni's grandson named Kgabe took a large portion of the descendants of Tqahombeni north westward crossing the mountains and settling near the Waterberg Mountains along the Nyl river where their descendants were gradually assimilated into the surrounding Sotho-Tswana groups. By the middle of the 18th century, the Gheghana had further divided into smaller splinter groups, which spread out across the hills, valleys and plains surrounding present-day Mghumbhani(Mokopane) , Zebediela and Bhulungwani (Polokwane) .These groups were progressively absorbed into the numerically superior and more dominant surrounding Sotho groups, undergoing considerable cultural and social change. By contrast, the descendants of Manala and Ndzundza maintained a more recognisably distinctive cultural identity, and retained a language which was closer to the Mbo spoken by their coastal forebears (and to present-day isiHlubi). Sibasa and his brother Mphafuli moved north into the territory of the VhaVenda and were met with resistance from the Venda.After a considerable conflict the forces of Mphafuli and Sibasa established chieftainships at Tshivhase and Sibasa . Some of Mphafuli's descendents trekked southwards and joined the Ndzundza. Dlomu had decided to leave the territories north of the Vaal and go back to the ancestral homeland of the Ndebele in Hlubi territory. Here the descendants of Dlomu established the amaNdebele Clan among the Hlubi . The descendants of Mhwaduba stayed with Manala at KwaMnyamana for almost seven generations until the onset of a drought in the late 1700s caused one of his descendants, known to the Voortrekkers as "Pete" uprooted his people and settled near Schuinsdraai in Limpopo . After the arrival of Mzilikazi north of the Vaal, the remanents of Pete's people settled among the Masetla BaKgatla and were gradually assimilated as BaKgatla. As for Tshwane. It is said by some that he was one of the descendants of Mhwaduba who did not leave with Pete but instead moved south and settled on the northern banks of the Hennops river . Thaba Tshwane nearby bears his name. Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality was named in honour of Tshwane as well as a 3m statue erected in-front of Pretoria City Hall . This has caused great controversy. Manala returned from the Olifants River back to KwaMnyamana with two of his brothers daughters, Mathisi and Ganuganu as consolation for the loss of iNamrhali. Upon Manala's return he buried the body of Musi under the Wonderboom at the base of Wonderboomkop . Following Ndebele tradition would have led the funeral ceremony with his clothes inside out in a practice called "ukuhlanukela". After the burial the new Ngwenyama is announced to the people by the royal praise singer after-which there is a great feast. In the years leading up to Manala's death his people saw relative prosperity at KwaMnyamana. Manala was succeeded by his son Ntjhele, who succeeded by his son Magutjhona who was succeeded by his son Mrhawu, who was succeeded by his brother Ncagu who served as regent until Buyambo, the son of Mrawu was of age to assume the Manala throne. Buyambo's son Mabhena I who succeeded him as Ngwenyama of the Manala throne expanded the territory of to as far south as the confluence of the Hennops River and the Sesmylspruit and as far north as Marblehall in Limpopo . Mabhena I did however struggle with expansion to the west. Never moving past the Sand River which becomes the Tolwane River . He met respectable resistance from the Sotho-Tswana groups to the west. When the son of Mabhena I, Mdibane, ascended to the throne the Manala had controlled a territory spanning the length of northern Gauteng. This included many large settlements such as KwaMnyamana (The Place of Black Rocks) which served as the Manala Capital, eMaruleni (The Place of Marula Trees), eZotjaneni (The Place in The Grass), KoNonduna (The Place of The Chiefs) and eMbilaneni (The Holy Place). Ndzundza and his followers now free to establish their own rule moved to the source of the Steelpoort river and built the first Ndzundza capital called KwaSimkulu "The Great Place" situated approximately 20 km (12 mi) west of modern-day Belfast at the foot of Kwaggaskop . Ndzundza's Ndebele claimed all the lands from the Olifants River in the east to the western banks of the Elands River in Mpumalanga as their new territory. Ndzundza was succeeded by his son Mrhetjha who in turn was succeeded by his son Magobholi. Bongwe, the son of Magobholi and great-grandson of Ndzundza, ruled in a time where the territory of the Ndzundza became increasingly threatened by raids from the Nguni tribes in the south east and more worry-some the growing Sotho-Tswana peoples in the north. Bongwe thus left KwaSimkulu and established a new capital for the Ndzundza at the base of the Bothasberg which was called "KwaMaza" (The Place of Ash). This new capital proved to be in a more solid position with which to push back the expansion of baKgatla tribes in the north. Bongwe died without issue and was succeeded by his brother Sindeni. Sindeni continued his brothers campaigns in the north and defeated both the baKgatla under Moloi and the bakwaNkadimeng. Sindeni was succeeded by his grandson Mahlangu. It is not clear how power was transferred from Sindeni to Mahlangu and what happened to Mahlangu's father who should have ruled before him. Mahlangu attempted to expand the Ndzundza territory both to the north and south but had limited success. Despite this Mahlangu gained significant notoriety from his enemies as a skilled military leader. Mahlangu was succeeded by his son Phaswana who was killed in war. Phaswana was succeeded by his brother Maridili who had greater success in war defeating Makuwa baPedi and Makwetla baPedi at eDikeni. Maridili died without issue and so the Ndzundza throne passed onto the next brother Mdalanyana who was killed in war. The throne passed to Mgwezana, son of Mahlangu, who too was killed in battle. After this Mgwezana's brother Dzela. Dzela engaged in an ambitious war to claim more territory for the Ndzundza eastwards and attacked the BoKoni around Lydenburg which they called "eMatjhitjhini" (The Place of The Long Grass). This campaign was not successful and Dzela was killed. The throne then passed to Mrhabuli who was the son of Mgwezana but served as regent for the young Gembe who was the rightful heir of Mgwezana's throne. To avenge the death Dzela, Mrhabuli split the Ndzundza force into three armies with his brother Magodongo in command of one force, his young brother and heir Gembe in command of the second and himself in command of the last. The plan was to surround the BoKoni capital and attack from three sides. Gembe and his forces had gotten scared and abandoned his brothers on the eve of battle and fled. Mrhabuli and Magodongo inflicted massive loses on the BoKoni but sustained great losses without the support of Gembe. Mrhabuli was killed in this battle and ultimately it was decided among the "Induna" or Chiefs of the Ndzundza, that Gembe's actions were unforgivable and that instead Magodongo would be named the Ngwenyama of the Ndzundza founding a new dynasty. Mzilikazi and The Mfecane Sibindi, the son of Mdibane of the Manala had heard of the arrival of a large Khumalo army headed by Mzilikazi north of the Vaal sometime in early 1820s. Sibindi at first made an attempt to avoid conflict by offering one of his daughters to Mzilikazi as a peace offering. The exact details of the breakdown of diplomacy between Sibindi and Mzilikazi is not clear but oral tradition tells how Mzilikazi asked Sibindi to lend him a few of his best soldiers to go hunting with. Mzilikazi's men then set upon Sibindis loaned warriors and killed them. Sibindi subsequently called for all Ndebele, including the forces of Ndzundza to unite as one and meet Mzilikazi in battle. But Magodongo of the Ndzundza had limited forces to spare, due to his own struggling war against Thulare I of the BaPedi. Thus Sibindi with his uncle Chief Mavula as his second instead of Magodongo, marched towards Mzilikazi's advancing horde and met him as Klipkop, west of Pretoria winning a few initial skirmishes with the traditional praise song of Sibindi singing "Ngushlangu sidabula udaka mhlana abantungwa bawa ubusolokohlo KoSomazabanye". "They drove Mzilikazi's troupes passed 'KoSomazabanye'" Which is modern day Cullinan . Unfortunately Sibindi's luck had run out. Sibindi was killed and the Manala capital of KwaMnyamana was sacked. This first set of skirmishes against Sibindi proved to be only a test run for Mzilikazi's conquest of the central Transvaal. His forces had already moved to the area of modern-day Middelburg and established a fortress called "EkuPhumuleni" which means "Place of Rest". By 1826, Mzilikazi's forces began assaulting Magodongo's capital of KwaMaza. This, coupled with the death of Sibindi, caused Magodongo to retreat from KwaMaza to a new Ndzundza capital called "eSikhunjini" which means "Hiden by the Animal Skin". Despite Magodongo's best efforts eSikhunjini was racked and Magodongo and his sons were taken captive by Mzilikazi. Tales tell of how Mzilikazi had the still living Magadongo partially impaled on wooden poles to torture him but not kill him. Mzilikazi then killed some of Magodongo's sons one by one by throwing them off a cliff after which he tied Magodongo to a large rock and threw him in a river to drown. In December 1826, Mzilikazi had shattered both the Manala and Ndzundza Ndebele and established a new capital for his Mthwakazi empire on the banks of the Apies River near Wonderboompoort and called it "Kungwini" which means "Place of Mist". Mzilikazi would rule from Kungwini for more that 10 years sending raiding forces as far north as the northern banks of the Olifants River and as far south as Heilbron in the Free State . The Khumalo suppressed any attempts by the Ndebele to re assert dominance in the region killing both Silamba's successor Mavula who was his brother, and Mgibe another brother. Among the Ndzundza the throne passed to Sibhoko who was one of the surviving sons of Magodongo. Sibhoko was allegedly killed after a dispute with a Sotho-Tswana Chief named Matlala north of Marblehall . He was succeeded by another of Magodongo's surviving sons named Somdeyi. Somdeyi ruled as regent for Tjambowe who was allegedly next in line to be king of the Ndzundza. Somdeyi was killed by one of Mzilikazi's raiding parties. Mzilikazi's occupation of the central Transvaal region would become threatened with the arrival of the Voortrekkers north of the Vaal River in 1836. The resulting confrontations over the next two years caused Mzilikazi to suffer heavy losses. By early 1838, Mzilikazi and his people were forced northwards out of Transvaal altogether and across the Limpopo River . Further attacks caused him to move again, at first westwards into present-day Botswana and then later northwards towards what is now Zambia . He was unable to settle the land there because of the prevalence of tsetse fly which carried diseases fatal to oxen. Mzilikazi therefore travelled again, this time southeastwards into what became known as Matabeleland (situated in the southwest of present-day Zimbabwe) and settled there in 1840. Transvaal Republic Directly after the defeat of Mzilikazi , the lands between the Vaal River and Limpopo were left in tatters and some Voortrekkers settled on lands that had previously belonged to African groups like the Ndzundza and Manala Ndebele. They claimed that upon their arrival the region was almost devoid of any African inhabitants because the thinking went, they had all fled in the face of the Mfecane . The Boers believed that the land was deserted and abandoned and therefore theirs for the taking. This caused great conflict between Boers and African kingdoms of the region who were attempting to reclaim the lands stolen from them by Mzilikazi's Mthwakazi Empire. The Manala were hardest hit by Mzilikazi's occupation. After the death of Sibindi the throne went to his brother Mvula who ruled only a year before being assassinated by Mzilikazi's forces. after Mvula the leadership of the Manala passed on to the next brother Mgibe. Mgibe ruled much longer than Mvula and had the foresight to send his brothers and their families to scatter and live far and wide so that if he should die, that there would always be another Manala of Mdibane to take over leadership. Mgibe like many before him was assassinated by Mzilikazi raiding parties after ruling in exile for only 5 years. The throne of the Manala would then pass to Silamba who was another son of Mdibane. Silamba attempted to re-establish control over the lands previously owned by the Manala but was met with staunch resistance by Voortrekker settlers. The territories south of KwaMnyamana where occupied, Silamba discovered, by two brothers named Lucas Cornelius Bronkhorst and Johannes Gerhardus Stephanus Bronkhorst who had arrived north of the Vaal with the Trek Party of Andries Hendrik Potgieter . The Bronkhorsts had settled near Fountains Valley along the Apies River . The ruins of their first homestead can be found in Groenkloof Nature Reserve . By 1842 Silamba had clashed with the Bronkhorsts a good deal and ultimately lost all the Manala lands south of KwaMnyamana. Silamba lived for sometime in KoNonduna near modernday Tierpoort . In 1873, After the establishment of The Transvaal Republic , Silamba moved from KoNonduna and settled in Wallmansthal and established a new capital for the Manala called "KoMjekejeke". Among the Ndzundza after the death of Somdeyi, The throne should have passed to Tjambowe who was the grandson of Magodongo but he had gone from being fully sighted to being completely blind in a span of 6 years and this disqualified him from his claim to the throne. An Imbizo was called and the chiefs and elders of the Ndzundza consulted and the decision was made to make Mabhoko, one of Magodono's youngest sons king. He was chosen for his youth and intelligence and for his bravery in battle despite how young he was. Mabhoko became known for his internal diplomacy skills offering Tjambowe a place of honour at all special events and invited him to live with him in the royal dwelling. Mabhoko had further decided to move the Ndzundza capital from eSikhunjini to a new settlement which he heavily fortified and called "eMrholeni". This new capital was near a series of caves called "KoNomtjarhelo". Mabhoko began immediate plans to restore the Ndzundza kingdom. Through diplomacy he entered into an alliance with one of the BaPedi Chiefs of the Marota Empire named Malewa. This alliance with Chief Malewa would ensure the Ndzundza's northernmost border would be protected. With Silamba's loss of the lands to the west let many settler enter into Ndzundza territory. With the establishment of Ohrigstad in 1845 just 120 km (75 mi) north east of the Ndzundza capital, Mabhokho moved the capital from eMrholeni into the caves of KoNomtjarhelo and established a virtually impenetrable fortress. Almost from the onset sporadic skirmishes began to take place between these new immigrants, and the Ndebele-Pedi alliance, who actively resisted the incursions which they were beginning to make upon their ancestral lands. Mabhoko had through the used of trade and raids secured large amounts of fire arms and won many of the initial skirmishes against the Boer forces. A malaria outbreak in Ohrigstad caused the Boers to move to deeper into Ndzundza territory and they established a settlement at Laersdrif . The settlement of Boers at Laersdrif which was less than 40 km (25 mi) south of the Ndzundza fortress of KoNomtjarhelo aggravated the Ndzundza into full out war with the Boers. This all came to a head in 1847 when Ndzundza won a decisive battle against the Boers. Many Boers left the area to settle lands in the west and those who stayed were required to recognise Mabhoko's authority and pay a tax in the form of cattle or supplies. Tensions between African kingdoms of the Transvaal and White settlers would only worsen with the signing of the Sand River Convention 17 January 1852. This document was signed between the British Empire and the Boers. In this document The British formally recognised the independence of the Boers north of the Vaal River. With this treaty in hand, the Boers established The Transvaal Republic as all the lands between the Vaal River in the south and Limpopo River in the north. The problem with the Sand River Convention was that no mention of or regard was given to the African people already living between the Vaal and Limpopo Rivers. In reality the Boers had only established a handful of settlements by 1852 and the majority of occupied land in the Transvaal was occupied by African kingdoms. In 1861, The throne of the Marota Empire fell to Sekhukhune who greatly expanded the lands of the BaPedi and this caused tensions with Mabhoko who resisted. After winning a few key battle against Sekhukhune. Mabhoko ultimately submitted to the rule of Sekhukhune and the Marota Empire. This drove a wedge between the Ndzundza and the BaPedi in the years to come. In 1863, tensions between the Boers and the Ndzundza Ndebele rose to boiling point again and The Boers, seeing Mabhoko with his arsenal of firearms as threat to the safety of the Republic, attacked KoNomtjarhelo with the aid of Swazi forces. This attack failed and the Swazi having sustained most of the casualties, deserted the Boers. In 1864 a second assault was made at KoNomtjarhelo and this too failed. Despite Mabhoko's continuous victory, the Ndundza territory, like the Manala was becoming smaller and smaller. A year later in 1865 Mabhoko died and was succeeded by his son Mkhephuli who was also called Soqaleni. Mkhephuli ruled for only 10 years and then passing the throne to his son Rhobongo/Xobongo. Rhobongo was not well loved and was described as somewhat of a tyrant. Rhobongo was succeeded by his brother Nyabela in 1879. Mapoch War (1882–83) In 1876, The Transvaal Republic under the controversial presidency of Thomas François Burgers , lost an expensive war against Sekhukhune north of the Steelpoort River . This led Theophilus Shepstone to annex the Transvaal on 12 April 1877 on behalf of the British Empire under the pretence of bringing stability to the region. This annexation by the British led to The Transvaal War of Independence (1880–81), more famously called The "First Anglo-Boer War". This war resulted in Boer victory. In the time of Nyabela's rule, The Ndzundza kingdom comprised approximately 84 km (52 mi) and had a population of about 15,000. It was after the Transvaal regained its independence in 1881 that the relationship between the Boers and Ndzundza began to deteriorate more rapidly than ever before. The Transvaal was becoming annoyed with Nyabela for asserting his independence (by, for example, declining to pay taxes, refusing to hold a census when instructed to do so and preventing a boundary commission from beaconing off his lands). What eventually became the casus belli was Nyabela's decision to harbour the Pedi Chief Mampuru , after he had assassinated his brother Sekhukhune on 13 August 1882.On two previous occasions, the Transvaal authorities had attempted to arrest Mampuru for fomenting disorder, and this latest outrage was the last straw. Mampuru and his supporters sought refuge with Makwani, one of Nyabela's subordinate chiefs. When ordered to extradite the fugitive, Nyabela made the decision not to do so. On 12 October 1882, the Volksraad authorised General Piet Joubert to raise a commando. At first, only Mampuru was the target of the expedition, but, at the end of the month, General Joubert was also instructed to bring to heel any African peoples who had harboured or assisted him. General Joubert had allegedly little enthusiasm for his latest brief, but this would not prevent him from pursuing it to its conclusion with relentless thoroughness. Raising enough able-bodied burghers for the expedition was not an altogether easy task. Few relished having to leave their farms for months on end to take part in a dull and prolonged campaign against rebellious Africans, even under a leader as respected and popular as General Joubert. Nevertheless, an expeditionary force was duly raised. The white citizens of the Transvaal Republic had few civic obligations, but serving on commando was one of them, and most of those called out reported for duty. By the end of October, the vanguard of General Joubert's commando, which was about ~2 000 strong, began arriving in Ndzundza territory. An ultimatum was sent to Nyabela, giving him one last chance to surrender Mampuru and to undertake to cooperate with the Transvaal authorities in future or war would ensue. General Joubert was anxious that he comply as a military campaign was not likely to be an easy one. For one, the Ndzundza Ndebele had in their possession a considerable arsenal of firearms that the Ndzundza had been trained to use in war since the rule of Mabhoko. Secondly, the fortress of KoNomtjarhelo was situated between precipitous cliffs and sheer rock faces on the eastern extremity of a range of heavily forested, boulder-strewn hills. A complex network of caves, grottos and tunnels pockmarked these heights, providing both places of refuge and space for storage to help withstand a long siege. The caves were a remarkable phenomenon, some being so extensive as to enable fighters to disappear into one entrance and reappear from a different one more than a kilometre away. Moreover, to capture the main stronghold, the attacking force would first have to overcome a series of well-fortified hills, most notably KwaPondo and KwaMrhali (called 'Vlugkraal' and 'Boskop' respectively by the Boers; KoNomtjarhelo was simply 'Spitskop') which guarded its approaches to the west. Any hopes he might have had for compliance were soon disappointed. Nyabela famously answered that he had swallowed Mampuru, and if the Boers wanted him they would have to kill him and take him out of his belly. General Joubert would ultimately eschew direct attacks against these strong points. The Boers were past masters when it came to storming hills (as they had demonstrated at Battle of Majuba Hill and Battle of Schuinshoogte the previous year). In this particular war, they could not be relied upon to take too many risks. Already half-hearted about the coming fight, they were liable to desert or simply refuse to cooperate. General Joubert complained after the war to the Transvaal Volksraad that the burghers "seemed to prefer looting cattle on their own account to fighting." Instead, therefore, Joubert's chosen strategy was to wear the chiefs down, confining them and their people to their mountain fortresses and allowing starvation to do the rest. This would at least minimise losses among the Boers. On the other hand, it would inevitably prolong the war. It was already known that the Ndzundza were stockpiling their food supplies in anticipation of a long siege. On 5 November, a last-ditch attempt to conclude the dispute peacefully came to nothing and, two days later, the first clash of the war took place. Without warning, a Ndzundza raiding party swooped down from the surrounding heights and began driving the commando's oxen, nearly a thousand head, towards a cave in the mountainside. About 150 Boers galloped after the raiders, running them to ground before they reached their destination and reclaiming their cattle. About twenty Ndzundza were killed in the skirmish; the Boers suffered just one, casualty. Within two weeks of the commencement of hostilities, the KwaPondo bastion was already being menaced. Three cannons as well as a considerable amount of dynamite had since arrived from Pretoria to help reduce the defences. On 17 November, the Ndzundza attempted to drive back the besieging force, but were themselves beaten off after two and a half hours of fierce fighting. The Boers brought two of their guns into the firing line during the engagement. Soon after this repulse, Nyabela sent out emissaries to discuss peace terms, but General Joubert was only prepared to deal with the chief in person and sent them back. Nyabela declined to present himself, no doubt suspecting that it was a ploy to capture him. KwaPondo, a semi-circular plateau surrounded by cliffs and strewn with boulders, was subjected to a heavy bombardment on 21 November, but to little effect. The Ndzundza forces merely jeered at and taunted the burghers from the safety of their breastworks. General Joubert's dynamiting operations were also unsuccessful, since the warriors of the Ndzundza had taken refuge in caves that were in most cases too deep for the blasts to have much effect. Laying the charges was also a dangerous business. The commando was substantially reinforced in the last week of November, many of the new arrivals being drawn from friendly African tribes in the northern and eastern parts of the Republic. In early December, part of the force was deployed against Mampuru. Accompanying the Boers were a large number of Pedi , who had been loyal to the late Sekhukhune and were eager to avenge his murder. On 7 December, this combined force launched a determined assault, only to retreat in some confusion in the face of an unexpected, well coordinated counter-attack by over 600 of the Ndzundza. Two days later in an early morning raid, dozens of Ndzundza were driven into a cave and all but six of them were shot or asphyxiated in the course of being smoked out. Two days into the new year, the commandos attacked KwaMrhali (Boskop) and eventually took it after a fierce firefight. On 5 February, General Joubert mustered his forces for a determined second assault on KwaPondo, which had withstood the besiegers for three months. The battle began just before daybreak and raged all morning. The burghers and their African auxiliaries, in the teeth of a stubborn resistance, were forced to clear the stronghold ledge by ledge and cave by cave. Many lay dead and wounded before the fortress fell. The hill's fortifications were dynamited that same day to prevent the Ndzundza from reoccupying the position. Now only KoNomtjarhelo was left. General Joubert and his war council ruled out storming the position and decided instead to use dynamite against it. This would entail digging a trench up to the base of the mountain, tunnelling deeply under it and laying sufficient charge to bring it all crashing down. It was indeed a bizarre and tortuous strategy, certainly amongst the most curious ever to have been devised in modern warfare. Digging commenced on 2 March. Unusually heavy rains that season had softened the ground, and after only a week the trench had been brought to within 400 metres of its objective. The diggers were harassed constantly by snipers. The real threat to the Ndzundza by then was imminent starvation. Four months of relentless attrition had seen their once plentiful food stocks steadily dwindled. By early April, all the chiefs of the Ndzundza had submitted to the invaders. Nyabela was promised that his own life would be spared and his people allowed to remain on their lands if he did likewise. He chose to fight on instead, perhaps still hoping, even at that late stage, to emulate his father's achievement of withstanding the Boers. Fighting petered out in the closing months of the war. Joubert was content to maintain his stranglehold until the inevitable surrender, receiving constant reports that the besieged Ndzundza were close to starvation. Most of the Boers merely lounged around in their forts, kicking their heels and waiting to be relieved. Some worked on the trench, which at least provided something to do. The Ndzundza harried the diggers as much as possible. In the middle of April, they staged a successful night attack, doing considerable damage and delaying operations by at least two weeks. In the meantime, one member of the commando, evidently a Scotsman by the name of Donald MacDonald, had defected to Nyabela. MacDonald proved to be of some use to his new comrades-in-arms. Amongst other things, he suggested to Nyabela to catapult large boulders down onto those working below. This tactic was one of the reasons that the Boers introduced a mobile iron fort to assist them with the digging. About two metres long, with two wheels inside and eight loopholes for firing, clumsy and unwieldy, it at least ensured that work on the trench could continue in relative safety. Shielded by the iron fort, the diggers managed to reach the base of the hill without further mishap. They commenced tunnelling underneath it, but had not progressed very far when they were held up by a bed of rock. Operations were suspended, permanently, as it turned out. Even then, the Ndzundza continued to fight back. Early in June, they launched a daring raid on the Boer kraals and netted themselves some 200 oxen, enabling them to hold out a little longer. At the end of the month, they also proved equal to the first and only attempt to take the stronghold by storm. About seventy of the bolder Boers, frustrated by the tedium of the siege, volunteered to rush KoNomtjharhelo and get it all over with. They had climbed to within fifteen metres of the crest when an Ndzundza counter-attacked, hurling down a continuous hail of stones and bullets pitching the attackers headlong down the way they had come. On 8 July, Nyabela belatedly decided to sacrifice Mampuru in the slender hope that this would end the siege. The Pedi fugitive was seized, trussed up and delivered to General Joubert, but the offering came too late. The prolonged campaign had cost the Transvaal Republic a small fortune (the Transvaal Volksraad later estimated the war costs to be £40 766) in addition to many burgher lives lost, and General Joubert was now bent on forcing an unconditional surrender. This came two days later. Nyabela gave himself up, along with about 8 000 of his warriors who had stayed by him to the end. As reparations, the entire Ndebele country was usurped. Nyabela and Mampuru were tried in Pretoria and sentenced to death. Mampuru was hanged for his part in the murder of Sekhukhune. Fortunately, Nyabela was had his sentenced to reduced to life imprisonment, he spent fifteen years in captivity before being released. He died on 19 December 1902 at eMlalaganye (The Place Where One Will Sleep Only Once), Hartebeestfontein, near Pretoria . The post-war settlement imposed by the ZAR was harsh. The amaNdebele social, economic and political structures were abolished and a proclamation on 31 August 1883 divided 36 000 hectares of land among the white burghers who had fought in the campaign against Nyabela, each man receiving seven hectares. Followers of the defeated chiefs were scattered around the republic and indentured to white farmers as virtual slave labourers for renewable five-year periods. In 1895, this whole country, now called Mapoch's Gronden, was incorporated as the fourth ward of the Middelburg District. KwaNdebele Bantustan In the Manala capital of KoMjekejeke, Silamba had died in 1892 and the Manala throne moved to his son Mdedlangeni. Like his father, Mdedlangeni made great attempts to resist the expansion of The Transvaal Republic. Mdedlangeni died under mysterious circumstances. Mdedlangeni was succeeded by his brother Libangeni who ruled as regent for Mdedlangeni's son Mabhena II. It is not known when Mabhena II ascended to the leadership of the Manala Ndebele. Mabhena II died in 1906 and was succeeded by his son Mbhongo I. Mbhongo I moved from KoMjekejeke to Jakkelsdans and in 1926 bought a farm near Klipkoppies along the Klipruit and established a new settlement called LoDini. After Nyabela, The throne passed to Nyabela's nephew Mfene who was the son of Mkhephuli also called Soqaleni. In approximately 1904, Mfene moved from eMlalaganye and bought the farm 'Welgelegen' 60 km (37 mi) north east of Pretoria and established what would become modern day KwaMhlanga . This site of eMlalaganye, which was on property owned by the Wolmarans family would become a Ndebele settlement called KwaMsiza and was ultimately sold in 1952 to build the Wonderboom Airport . The community of Msiza moved to the Winterveld region north of Mabopane and built new community appearing on road signs and various maps as either KwaMapoch, Speelman's Kraal, or simply as The Ndebele Village. Its residents however, prefer the term KwaMsiza. In 1921, Mfene died at KwaMhlanga, and his son Mayitjha I succeeded him, buying his own ground at Weltevreden near Dennilton in the South Central Transvaal, where he constructed KwaSimuyembiwa (eMthambothini). This settlement would later On the 3rd of March 1970, The Bantu Homelands Citizenship Act, 1970 (Act No. 26 of 1970; subsequently renamed the Black States Citizenship Act, 1970 and the National States Citizenship Act, 1970) was passed into Law by the Apartheid government. This law was a Self Determination or denaturalization law passed that allocated various tribes/nations of black South Africans as citizens of their traditional black tribal "homelands," or Bantustans . This led to the establishment of the KwaNdebele 'Homeland' in 1977 with Mfene's KwaSimuyembiwa forming part of the new capital Siyabuswa . The majority of Ndebele living in this Bantustan were Ndzundza and many attempts were made to have more Manala move into the KwaNdebele homeland. Tensions however would rise when the issue of KwaNdebele independence emerged in the early 1980s came up, as members of the cabinet promised to make the present numerically smaller Manala supreme paramount of amaNdebele on the basis that the land where KwaNdebele was created originally belonged to the Manala kingdom. In 1977, three tribal authorities in the Hammanskraal district in Bophuthatswana , the Litho under Lazarus Mahlangu , the Pungutsha under Isaac Mahlangu and the Manala under Alfred Mabena - seceded from Bophuthatswana with the land and people under their jurisdiction, and joined KwaNdebele . These three tribal authorities combined to form Mnyamana Regional Authority, and the Ndzundza Regional Authority formed the South Ndebele Territorial Authority. With the establishment of a legislative assembly in 1979, tensions in the agendas of some of the Ndzundza-Mabhoko traditional leaders and their councillors began to emerge. The legislative assembly involved a 46-member body with a six-member cabinet appointed by the Chief minister . All 46 members were nominated by the four tribal authorities. However, once nominated, a tribal authority could not recall a Member of Parliament. Only the assembly itself could remove a Member of Parliament. The Chief Minister also had the right to appoint or remove traditional leaders. The creation of the legislative assembly resulted in a shift in the balance of power from the traditional authorities to the legislative authorities made up of appointees. By early 1985, the split between 'traditionalist' chiefs and the legislature became apparent when Lazarus Mahlangu of the Litho Tribal Authority wrote a letter in which the tribal authority stated that it wished to excise itself from KwaNdebele and rejoin Bophuthatswana. Mahlangu was a Ndzundza traditionalist who had seceded from Bophuthatswana in 1977. The reasons given were that the administration of Simon Skosana interfered in 'traditional affairs' and dictated to, rather than consulted with, the tribal authority. A symptom of this subordinate relationship was the desire of the tribal authority to replace its nominated member of parliament with other nominees, as the present Member of Parliament was not carrying out the instructions of the tribal authority. However, once nominated, Members of Parliament could only be removed by the assembly. The tribal authority also complained that it was being ignored by the magistrate and the Commissioner General. In July 1985, Skosana withdrew recognition of Mahlangu as chief. In 1994 The African National Congress won the 1994 General election and The Bantu Homelands Citizenship Act was repealed on 27 April 1994 by the Interim Constitution of South Africa . Thus KwaNdebele and its subjects were incorporated into the Republic of South Africa Social and cultural life Internal political and social structures The authority over a tribe was vested in the tribal head (iKosi), assisted by an inner or family council (iimphakathi). Wards (izilindi) were administered by ward heads and the family groups within the wards were governed by the heads of the families. The residential unit of each family was called an umuzi . The umuzi usually consisted of a family head (unnumzana) with his wife and unmarried children. If he had more than one wife, the umuzi was divided into two halves, a right and a left half, to accommodate the different wives. An umuzi sometimes grew into a more complex dwelling unit when the head's married sons and younger brothers joined the household. Every tribe consisted of a number of patrilineal clans or izibongo. This meant that every clan consisted of a group of individuals who shared the same ancestor in the paternal line. Personal adornment Ndebele women traditionally adorned themselves with a variety of ornaments, each symbolising her status in society. After marriage, dresses became increasingly elaborate and spectacular. In earlier times, the Ndebele wife would wear copper and brass rings around her arms, legs and neck, symbolising her bond and faithfulness to her husband, once her home was built. She would only remove the rings after his death. The rings (called idzila) were believed to have strong ritual powers. Husbands used to provide their wives with rings; the richer the husband, the more rings the wife would wear. Today, it is no longer common practice to wear these rings permanently. In addition to the rings, married women also wore neck hoops made of grass (called isirholwani) twisted into a coil and covered in beads, particularly for ceremonial occasions. Linrholwani are sometimes worn as neckpieces and as leg and arm bands by newly wed women whose husbands have not yet provided them with a home, or by girls of marriageable age after the completion of their initiation ceremony (ukuthomba). Married women also wore a five-fingered apron (called an itjhorholo) to mark the culmination of the marriage, which only takes place after the birth of the first child. The marriage blanket (untsurhwana) worn by married women was decorated with beadwork to record significant events throughout the woman's lifetime. For example, long beaded strips signified that the woman's son was undergoing the initiation ceremony and indicated that the woman had now attained a higher status in Ndebele society. It symbolised joy because her son had achieved manhood as well as the sorrow at losing him to the adult world. A married woman always wore some form of head covering as a sign of respect for her husband. These ranged from a simple beaded headband or a knitted cap to elaborate beaded headdresses (amacubi). Boys usually went naked or wore a small front apron of goatskin. However, girls wore beaded aprons or beaded wraparound skirts from an early age. For rituals and ceremonies, Ndebele men adorned themselves with ornaments made for them by their wives. Art Traditional Ndebele architecture at Lesedi Cultural Village . See also: Ndebele house painting Ndebele art has always been an important identifying characteristic of the Ndebele. Apart from its aesthetic appeal it has a cultural significance that serves to reinforce the distinctive Ndebele identity. The Ndebele's essential artistic skill has always been understood to be the ability to combine exterior sources of stimulation with traditional design concepts borrowed from their ancestors. Ndebele artists also demonstrated a fascination with the linear quality of elements in their environment and this is depicted in their artwork. Painting was done freehand, without prior layouts, although the designs were planned beforehand. The characteristic symmetry, proportion and straight edges of Ndebele decorations were done by hand without the help of rulers and squares. Ndebele women were responsible for painting the colourful and intricate patterns on the walls of their houses. This presented the traditionally subordinate wife with an opportunity to express her individuality and sense of self-worth. Her innovativeness in the choice of colours and designs set her apart from her peer group. In some instances, the women also created sculptures to express themselves. The back and side walls of the house were often painted in earth colours and decorated with simple geometric shapes that were shaped with the fingers and outlined in black. The most innovative and complex designs were painted, in the brightest colours, on the front walls of the house. The front wall that enclosed the courtyard in front of the house formed the gateway (izimpunjwana) and was given special care. Windows provided a focal point for mural designs and their designs were not always symmetrical. Sometimes, makebelieve windows are painted on the walls to create a focal point and also as a mechanism to relieve the geometric rigidity of the wall design. Simple borders painted in a dark colour, lined with white, accentuated less important windows in the inner courtyard and in outside walls. Contemporary Ndebele artists make use of a wider variety of colours (blues, reds, greens and yellows) than traditional artists were able to, mainly because of their commercial availability. Traditionally, muted earth colours, made from ground ochre, and different natural-coloured clays, in white, browns, pinks and yellows, were used. Black was derived from charcoal. Today, bright colours are the order of the day. As Ndebele society became more westernised, the artists started reflecting this change of their society in their paintings. Another change is the addition of stylised representational forms to the typical traditional abstract geometric designs. Many Ndebele artists have now also extended their artwork to the interior of houses. Ndebele artists also produce other crafts such as sleeping mats and isingolwani. Iinrholwani (colourful neck, arms, hips and legs hoops) are made by winding grass into a hoop, binding it tightly with cotton and decorating it with beads. In order to preserve the grass and to enable the hoop to retain its shape and hardness, the hoop is boiled in sugar water and left in the hot sun for a few days. A further outstanding characteristic of the Ndebele is their beadwork. Beadwork is intricate and time-consuming and requires a deft hand and good eyesight. This pastime has long been a social practice in which the women engaged after their chores were finished but today, many projects involve the production of these items for sale to the public. Special occasions Initiation In Ndebele culture, the initiation rite, symbolising the transition from childhood to adulthood, plays an important role. Initiation schools for boys are held every four years and for girls, as soon as they get into puberty stage. During the period of initiation, relatives and friends come from far and wide to join in the ceremonies and activities associated with initiation. Boys are initiated as a group when they are about 18 years of age when a special regiment (iintanga) is set up and led by a boy of high social rank. Each regiment has a distinguishing name. Among the Ndzundza tribe there is a cycle of 15 such regimental names, allocated successively, and among the Manala there is a cycle of 13 such names. During initiation girls wear an array of colourful beaded hoops (called iinrholwani) around their legs, arms, waist and neck. The girls are kept in isolation and are prepared and trained to become homemakers and matriarchs. The coming-out ceremony marks the conclusion of the initiation school and the girls then wear stiff rectangular aprons (called iphephetu), beaded in geometric and often three-dimensional patterns, to celebrate the event. After initiation, these aprons are replaced by stiff, square ones, made from hardened leather and adorned with beadwork. Courtship and marriage Marriages were only concluded between members of different clans, that is, between individuals who did not have the same clan name. However, a man could marry a woman from the same family as his paternal grandmother. The prospective bride was kept secluded for two weeks before the wedding in a specially made structure in her parents' house, to shield her from men's eyes. When the bride emerged from her seclusion, she was wrapped in a blanket and covered by an umbrella that was held for her by a younger girl (called Ipelesi) who also attended to her other needs. On her marriage, the bride was given a marriage blanket, which she would, in time, adorn with beadwork, either added to the blanket's outer surface or woven into the fabric. After the wedding, the couple lived in the area belonging to the husband's clan. Women retained the clan name of their fathers but children born of the marriage took their father's clan name. PEDI PEOPLE The Pedi People /pɛdi/ or Bapedi /bæˈpɛdi/ - also known as the Northern Sotho,[2] Basotho ba Lebowa, bakgatla ba dithebe, Transvaal Sotho, Marota, or Dikgoshi - are a Sotho-Tswana ethnic group native to South Africa, Botswana, and Lesotho that speak Pedi or Sepedi, which is one of the 12 official languages in South Africa . They are primarily situated in Limpopo , Gauteng and northern Mpumalanga . The Pedi people are part of the Bantu ethnic group . Their common ancestors, along with the Sotho and Tswana , migrated from East Africa to South Africa no later than the 7th century CE. Over time, they emerged as a distinct people between the 15th and 18th centuries, with some settling in the northern region of the Transvaal. The Pedi maintained close ties with their relatives and neighboring tribes. Towards the end of the 18th century, the primary Pedi state was established, led by supreme leaders from the Maroteng clan. In the early 19th century, the Pedi state faced significant challenges from the Nguni , particularly the Northern Ndebele under Mzilikazi [10] and the Swati . A pivotal figure in preserving the Pedi state was Sekwati (1827–1861), the paramount leader who introduced reforms in the military and internal administration and welcomed Christian missionaries . After Sekwati I's passing, his son Sekhukhune took control but reversed some reforms, including Christianization. From 1876 to 1879, the Pedi engaged in wars with the Boers and the British , resulting in defeat and the Pedi state falling under Boer influence. In 1882, Sekhukhune was assassinated by conspirators, leading to the dismantling of the monarchy and statehood. In 1885, the Transvaal government only allocated a small territory to the Pedi, with the majority of the people living outside of it. In the 1950s, the Sotho language committee recognized the Pedi language as distinct from Sesotho. Throughout history, the Pedi actively participated in the struggle against colonization and apartheid in South Africa, joining the broader movement of African peoples fighting for their rights and freedom. Name and Terminology Rev. Alexander Merensky , a German missionary, had an extensive understanding of the Bapedi tribe, surpassing that of any other European of his time. According to Merensky, Sekhukhune's people were a fusion of various tribes, with the most significant group identifying as the "Bapedi" or "Baperi," meaning the "Family of the King." This tribe had settled along the Steelpoort River nearly two centuries prior, and Merensky found the name of their kingdom, 'Biri,' on antique Portuguese maps. The origin of the Bapedi name is uncertain, but it may have come from an ancestral figure or the land they inhabited. What is significant is that the tribe founded by Thobela and its various divisions revered the porcupine as their totem and identified as Bapedi. History South Africa in 1885. A Pedi woman breastfeeding. Alfred Duggan-Cronin. South Africa, early 20th century. The Wellcome Collection, London Early history Proto-Sotho people are thought to have migrated south from eastern Africa (around the African Great Lakes ) in successive waves spanning five centuries. They made their way along with modern-day western Zimbabwe , with the last group of Sotho speakers, the Hurutse, settling in the region west of Gauteng around the 16th century. The Pedi people originated from the Kgatla offshoot, a group of Tswana speakers . In about 1650, they settled in the area to the south of the Steelpoort River . Over several generations, linguistic and cultural homogeneity developed to a certain degree. Only in the last half of the 18th century did they broaden their influence over the region, establishing the Pedi paramountcy by bringing smaller neighboring chiefdoms under their control. During migrations in and around this area, groups of people from diverse origins began to concentrate around dikgoro, or ruling nuclear groups. They identified themselves through symbolic allegiances to totemic animals such as tau (lion), kolobe (pig), and kwena (crocodile). The Pedi people show a considerable amount of Khoisan admixture. The Marota Empire/ Pedi Kingdom The Pedi polity under King Thulare (c. 1780–1820) was made up of land that stretched from present-day Rustenburg to the lowveld in the west and as far south as the Vaal River . Pedi power was undermined during the Mfecane by Ndwandwe invaders from the south-east. A period of dislocation followed, after which the polity was re-stabilized under Thulare's son, Sekwati. Sekwati succeeded Thulare as paramount chief of the Pedi in the northern Transvaal (Limpopo ) and was frequently in conflict with the Matabele under Mzilikazi and plundered by the Zulu and the Swazi . Sekwati has also engaged in numerous negotiations and struggles for control over land and labor with the Afrikaans -speaking farmers (Boers) who have since settled in the region. These disputes over land occurred after the founding of Ohrigstad in 1845, but after the town was incorporated into the Transvaal Republic in 1857 and the Republic of Lydenburg was formed, an agreement was reached that the Steelpoort River was the border between the Pedi and the Republic. The Pedi were well equipped to defend themselves, though, as Sekwati and his heir, Sekhukhune I were able to procure firearms, mostly through migrant labor to the Kimberley diamond fields and as far as Port Elizabeth . The Pedi paramountcy's power was also cemented by the fact that chiefs of subordinate villages, or kgoro, took their principal wives from the ruling house. This system of cousin marriage resulted in the perpetuation of marriage links between the ruling house and the subordinate groups and involved the payment of an inflated magadi, or brideprice mostly in the form of cattle, to the Maroteng house. Swazi Campaigns The Campaigns against the Pedi refer to a sequence of military operations undertaken by the Swazi in their endeavors to subjugate the Pedi people. Despite their persistent efforts, the Swazi forces faced significant challenges in conquering the Pedi's formidable mountain fortresses, which served as robust strongholds for the Pedi people. As a consequence of the Swazi's inability to completely overpower the Pedi, some Pedi fugitives successfully reassembled, allowing them to sustain their resistance against the Swazi forces. Sekhukhune Wars King Sekhukhune 1881 Sekhukhune I succeeded his father in 1861 and repelled an attack against the Swazi . At the time, there were also border disputes with the Transvaal , which led to the formation of Burgersfort , which was manned by volunteers from Lydenburg . By the 1870s, the Pedi were one of three alternative sources of regional authority, alongside the Swazi and the ZAR (Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek ). Over time, tensions increased after Sekhukhune refused to pay taxes to the Transvaal government, and the Transvaal declared war in May 1876. It became known as the Sekhukhune War, the outcome of which was that the Transvaal commando's attack failed. After this, volunteers nevertheless continued to devastate Sekhukhune's land and provoke unrest, to the point where peace terms were met in 1877. Unrest continued, and this became a justification for the British annexing the Transvaal in April 1877 under Sir Theophilus Shepstone . Following the annexation, the British also declared war on Sekhukhune I under Sir Garnet Wolseley , and defeated him in 1879. Sekhukhune was then imprisoned in Pretoria , but later released after the first South African War , when the Transvaal regained independence. However, soon after his release, Sekhukhune was murdered by his half-brother Mampuru ,[18] and because his heir had been killed in the war and his grandson, Sekhukhune II was too young to rule, one of his other half-brothers, Kgoloko, assumed power as regent. Apartheid In 1885, an area of 1,000 square kilometres (390 sq mi) was set aside for the Pedi, known as Geluk Location created by the Transvaal Republic's Native Location Commission. Later, according to apartheid segregation policy , the Pedi would be assigned the homeland of Lebowa . Culture This section possibly contains original research . Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations . Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (March 2024) (Learn how and when to remove this message ) Use of Totems Like the other Sotho-Tswana groups, the Bapedi people use totems to identify sister clans and kinship. The most widely used totems in Sepedi are as follows: EnglishPedi WarthogKolobe LionTau CrocodileKwena PorcupineNoko MonkeyKgabo BuckPhuthi PangolinKgaka BuffaloNare ElephantTlou Settlements In pre-conquest times, people settled on elevated sites in relatively large villages, divided into kgoro (pl. dikgoro, groups centered on agnatic family clusters). Each consisted of a group of households in huts built around a central area that served as a meeting place, cattle byre, graveyard, and ancestral shrine. Households' huts were ranked in order of seniority. Each wife of a polygynous marriage had her own round thatched hut, joined to other huts by a series of open-air enclosures (lapa) encircled by mud walls. Older boys and girls, respectively, would be housed in separate huts. Aspirations to live in a more modern style, along with practicality, have led most families to abandon the round hut style for rectangular, flat-tin-roofed houses. Processes of forced and semi-voluntary relocation and an apartheid government planning scheme implemented in the name of "betterment", have meant that many newer settlements and the outskirts of many older ones consist of houses built in grid formation, occupied by individual families unrelated to their neighbors. Politics Kgoshi – a loose collection of kinsmen with related males at its core, was as much a jural unit as a kinship one, since membership was defined by acceptance of the kgoro-head's authority rather than primarily by descent. Royal or chiefly kgoros sometimes underwent rapid subdivision as sons contended for positions of authority. Marriage Marriage was patrilocal. Polygamy was practiced mostly by people of higher, especially chiefly, status. Marriage was preferred with a close or classificatory cousin, especially a mother's brother's daughter, but this preference was most often realized in the case of ruling or chiefly families. Practiced by the ruling dynasty, during its period of dominance, it represented a system of political integration and control over the recycling of bridewealth (dikgomo di boela shakeng; returning of bride cattle). Cousin marriage meant that the two sets of prospective in-laws were closely connected even before the event of a marriage, and went along with an ideology of sibling-linkage, through which the Magadi (bridewealth) procured for a daughter's marriage would, in turn, be used to get a bride for her brother, and he would repay his sister by offering a daughter to her son in marriage. Cousin marriage is still practiced, but less frequently. Polygyny too is now rare, many marriages end in divorce or separation, and a large number of young women remain single and raise their children in small (and often very poor) female-headed households. But new forms of domestic cooperation have come into being, often between brothers and sisters, or matrilineally linked relatives.[original research? ] Inheritance Previously, the oldest son of a household within a polygynous family would inherit the house-property of his mother, including its cattle, and was supposed to act as custodian of these goods for the benefit of the household's other children. With the decline of cattle-keeping and the sharp increase in land shortages, this has switched to a system of last-born inheritance, primarily of land. Initiation The life cycle for both sexes was differentiated by important rituals. Both girls and boys underwent initiation . Boys (bašemane, later mašoboro) spent their youth looking after cattle at remote outposts in the company of peers and older youths. Circumcision and initiation at koma (initiation school), held about once every five years, socialized youths into groups of cohorts or regiments (mephato) bearing the leader's name, whose members then maintained lifelong loyalty to each other, and often traveled together to find work on the farms or in the mines. Girls attended their own koma and were initiated into their own regiments (ditswa-bothuku), usually two years after the boys. Initiation is still practiced, and provides a considerable income to the chiefs who license it for a fee or, in recent years, to private entrepreneurs who have established initiation schools beyond the chiefs' jurisdiction. Music and Arts See also: Music of South Africa § Pedi-traditional Traditional Dancers Performing at a wedding Important crafts included metalsmithing, beadwork , pottery , house building and painting, and woodworking (especially the making of drums). The arts of the Pedi are known for metal forging, beading, pottery, woodworking, much more in drum making, and also painting.[20] Mmino wa Setšo Pedi music consists of a single six-note scale traditionally played on reeds, but currently it is played more on a jaw harp or autoharp. Migrants influenced by Kibala music play aluminum pipes of different heights to reproduce vocal harmonies. In traditional dances, women dance on their knees, usually accompanied by drums, backing vocals, and a lead singer. These dances involve vigorous topless shaking from the upper torso while the women kneel on the floor. Songs are also part of Pedi culture. While working, the Pedi sang together to finish the job faster. They had A song about killing a Lion to become a man; it was a bit peculiar. The act of killing a Lion is very unusual and is no longer practiced. In fact, it was so unusual that if a boy was successful, he would get high status and the ultimate prize - marrying the chief's daughter. The Bapedi also have different types of cultural music: Mpepetlwane: played by young girls; Mmatšhidi: played by older men and women; Kiba / Dinaka: played by men and boys and now joined by women; Dipela: played by everyone Makgakgasa is also played by older women. Pedi music (mmino wa setso: traditional music, lit. music of origin) has a six-note scale . The same applies to variants of Mmino wa Setšo as practiced by Basotho ba Leboa (Northern Sotho) tribes in the Capricorn, Blouberg , Waterberg districts, as well as BaVhenda in the Vhembe district. Mmino wa Setšo (indigenous African music) can also be construed as African musicology, a concept that is often used to distinguish the study of indigenous African music from the dominant ethnomusicology discipline in academia. Ethnomusicology has a strong footprint in academia spanning several decades. Such a presence is evident in ethnomusicology journals that can be traced back to the 1950s. Ethnomusicologists who study indigenous African music have been criticized for studying the subject from a subjective Western point of view, especially given the dominance of the Western musical canon in South Africa] In South Africa, authors such as Mapaya indicate that for many years, African Musicology has been studied from a multi-cultural perspective without success. Scholars of African Musicology such as Agawu, Mapaya, Nketia, and Nzewi emphasize the study of indigenous African music from the perspective, and language of the practitioners (baletši). These scholars argue for the study of African Musicology from an angle that elevates the practitioners, their actions, and their interactions. Categories of Mmino wa Setšo Mmino wa Setšo in Limpopo province has a number of categories. Categories of Mmino wa Setšo are distinguished according to the function they serve in the community. Dinaka/Kiba The peak of Pedi (and northern Sotho) musical expression is arguably the kiba genre, which has transcended its rural roots to become a migrant style. In its men's version, it features an ensemble of players, each playing an aluminum end-blown pipe of a different pitch (naka, pl. dinaka) and together producing a descending melody that mimics traditional vocal songs with richly harmonized qualities. Mapaya provides a detailed descriptive analysis of Dinaka/Kiba music and dance, from a Northern Sotho perspective. Alternatives to Dinaka or Kiba In the women's version, a development of earlier female genres that has recently been included within the definition of kiba, a group of women sing songs (koša ya dikhuru, loosely translated: knee-dance music). This translation has its roots in the traditional kneeling dance that involves salacious shaking movements of the breasts accompanied by chants. These dances are still very common among Tswana, Sotho, and Nguni women. This genre comprises sets of traditional songs steered by a lead singer accompanied by a chorus and an ensemble of drums (meropa), previously wooden but now made of oil drums and milk urns. These are generally sung at drinking parties and/or during celebrations such as weddings. Mmino wa bana Children occupy a special place in the broader category of Mmino wa Setšo. Research shows that mmino wa bana can be examined for its musical elements, educational validity, and general social functions Pedi Heartland The present-day Pedi area, Sekhukhuneland , is situated between the Olifants River (Lepelle) and its tributary, the Steelpoort River (Tubatse); bordered on the east by the Drakensberg range, and crossed by the Leolo mountains. But at the height of its power, the Pedi polity under Thulare (about 1780–1820) included an area stretching from the site of present-day Rustenburg in the west to the Lowveld in the east, and ranging as far south as the Vaal River . Reliable historians and sources also credit the Pedi kingdom as the first and dominant monarchy established in the region. The kingdom, which boasted numerous victories over the Boers and the British armies, was one of the strongest and largest in Southern Africa in the mid- to late 1800s under the warrior king Sekhukhune I, whose kingdom stretched from the Vaal River in the south to the Limpopo River in the north. Apartheid The area under Pedi's control was severely limited when the polity was defeated by British troops in 1879. Reserves were created for this and for other Northern Sotho groups by the Transvaal Republic 's Native Location Commission. Over the next hundred years or so, these reserves were then variously combined and separated by a succession of government planners. By 1972, this planning had culminated in the creation of an allegedly independent national unit, or homeland, named Lebowa . In terms of the government's plans to accommodate ethnic groups separated from each other, this was designed to act as a place of residence for all Northern Sotho speakers. But many Pedi had never resided here: since the polity's defeat, they had become involved in a series of labor-tenancy or sharecropping arrangements with white farmers, lived as tenants on crown land, purchased farms communally as freeholders, or moved to live in the townships adjoining Pretoria and Johannesburg on a permanent or semi-permanent basis. In total, however, the population of the Lebowa homeland increased rapidly after the mid-1950s, due to the forced relocations from rural areas and cities in common South Africa undertaken by apartheid's planners, and to voluntary relocations by which former labor tenants sought independence from the restrictive and deprived conditions under which they had lived on the white farms. Subsistence and economy Overgrazed Bapedi reserve near Pietersburg, Drakensberg The pre-conquest economy combined cattle-keeping with hoe cultivation. The principal crops were sorghum, pumpkins, and legumes, which were grown by women on fields allocated to them when they married. Women hoed and weeded, did pottery, built and decorated huts with mud; made sleeping mats and baskets, ground grain, cooked, brewed, and collected water and wood. Men did some work in fields at peak times; they hunted and herded; they did woodwork, prepared hides, and were metal workers and smiths. Most major tasks were done communally by matsema (work parties). The chief was depended upon to perform rainmaking for his subjects. The introduction of the animal-drawn plow, and of maize, later transformed the labor division significantly, especially when combined with the effects of labor migration. Men's leaving home to work for wages was initially undertaken by regimental groups of youths to satisfy the paramount's firepower requirements but later became increasingly necessary to individual households as population increase within the reserve and land degradation made it impossible to subsist from cultivation alone. Despite increasingly long absences, male migrants nonetheless remained committed to the maintenance of their fields; plowing had now to be carried out during periods of leave or entrusted to professional plowmen or tractor owners. Women were left to manage and carry out all other agricultural tasks. Men, although subjected to increased controls in their lives as wage-laborers, fiercely resisted all direct attempts to interfere with the spheres of cattle-keeping and agriculture. Their resistance erupted in open rebellion, ultimately subdued, during the 1950s. In later decades, some families have continued to practice cultivation and keep stock. In the early 1960s, about 48% of the male population was absent as wage-earners at any given time. Between the 1930s and the 1960s, most Pedi men would spend a short period working on nearby white farms, followed by a move to employment in the mines or domestic service, and later, especially in more recent times, to factories or industry. Female wage employment began more recently and is rarer and more sporadic. Some women work for short periods on farms; others have begun, since the 1960s, to work in domestic service in the towns of the Witwatersrand. But in recent years, there have been rising levels of education and expectations, combined with a sharp drop in employment rates. Land tenure The pre-colonial system of communal or tribal tenure, which was broadly similar to that practiced throughout the southern African region, was crystallized but subtly altered, by the colonial administration. A man was granted land by the chief for each of his wives; unused land was reallocated by the chief rather than being inherited within families. Overpopulation resulting from the government's relocation policies resulted in this system being modified; a household's fields, together with its residential plot, are now inherited, ideally by the youngest married son. Christian Pedi communities that owned freehold farms were removed to the reserve without compensation, but since 1994, many have now reoccupied their land or are preparing to do so, under restitution legislation. Religion Ancestors are viewed as intermediaries between humans and The Creator or God (Modimo/Mmopi) and are communicated to by calling on them using a process of burning incense, making an offering, and speaking to them (go phasa). If necessary, animal sacrifice may be done or beer presented to the children on both the mother's and father's sides. A key figure in the family ritual was the kgadi (who was usually the father's elder sister). The position of ngaka (diviner) was formerly inherited patrilineally but is now commonly inherited by a woman from her paternal grandfather or great-grandfather. This is often manifested through illness and through violent possession by spirits (malopo) of the body, the only cure for which is to train as a diviner. There has been a proliferation of diviners in recent times, with many said to be motivated mainly by a desire for material gain. African Art - Masks - Paintings of Many African Tribes The Rich Diversity Of Indigenous Tribes Experience the rich tapestry of South Africa’s indigenous tribes, each steeped in vibrant traditions, customs, and a unique cultural heritage that has been preserved for generations. Journey through the diverse landscapes of the region to uncover the fascinating stories and practices of these ancient communities. The indigenous tribes of South Africa have a rich history and diverse cultural heritage. The country is home to various tribes, each with distinctive customs and traditions. These tribes are spread across different regions of South Africa. They vary in both population size and linguistic diversity. Some tribes have large populations while others are smaller in number. Each tribe also has its unique language and dialect, adding to the country’s cultural tapestry. Traditional Beliefs And Spiritual Practices The indigenous tribes of South Africa uphold traditional beliefs and spiritual practices, deeply rooted in their customs and heritage. These traditions are passed down through generations, shaping their cultural identity and connection to the land. Their spiritual rituals and ceremonies are integral to their way of life, reflecting a profound respect for nature and ancestral wisdom. Indigenous Tribes of South Africa: Traditional Beliefs and Spiritual Practices Ancestral worship includes honoring ancestors for guidance and protection. Connection to nature is central, viewing it as a living entity. Rituals and ceremonies mark important life events and seasons. Traditional healers play key roles in spiritual and physical well-being. Traditional Art And Crafts Traditional art and crafts play a significant role in showcasing the unique artistic expressions of indigenous tribes in South Africa. These tribes meticulously create stunning artwork using natural materials, which not only reflects their deep connection with nature but also has symbolic meanings. The use of natural materials such as wood, clay, beads, and feathers not only adds authenticity to their creations but also signifies their respect and reverence towards the environment. Indigenous tribes in South Africa often incorporate symbolism in their artwork to communicate powerful messages and preserve their cultural heritage. Each piece of art holds a deeper meaning, narrating stories of ancestors, spirituality, and traditional beliefs. These symbolic representations provide a glimpse into their rich history, customs, and traditions. From intricate wood carvings and beautifully beaded jewelry to vibrant paintings and pottery, the traditional art and crafts of indigenous tribes in South Africa captivate and mesmerize onlookers, showcasing their creativity, talent, and deep-rooted cultural values. Oral Tradition And Storytelling Oral tradition and storytelling are integral to the indigenous tribes of South Africa. The importance of oral history lies in preserving cultural heritage and passing down knowledge through generations. Myths, legends, and folktales are woven into the fabric of their storytelling, conveying morals and values. Additionally, rituals play a crucial role in ensuring the continuation of these traditions, creating a sense of communal identity and pride. Land And Natural Resources Indigenous tribes of South Africa have a deep connection to the land, which is integral to their traditions, customs, and heritage. They have a profound respect for their traditional land rights and prioritize conservation efforts to protect their natural resources. However, they face numerous challenges and threats to their territories, including land encroachment and unsustainable resource exploitation. Despite these obstacles, indigenous communities are steadfast in their commitment to safeguarding their land and natural resources for future generations. Cultural Tourism And Preservation Cultural tourism is crucial in promoting sustainable tourism, preserving the rich traditions, customs, and heritage of indigenous tribes in South Africa. By embracing cultural tourism, indigenous communities can preserve their unique way of life, ensuring that their traditions are not lost to modernization. Cultural exchange and understanding are integral in fostering mutual respect and appreciation. Through cultural tourism, visitors can engage with indigenous tribes, promoting a deeper understanding of their customs and heritage. By participating in activities such as traditional dances, storytelling, and handicrafts, tourists can immerse themselves in the authentic experiences offered by indigenous tribes. This exchange of knowledge and appreciation can help break stereotypes and misconceptions, fostering greater cultural tolerance and respect. The Importance Of Indigenous Rights Indigenous rights play a crucial role in preserving the rich traditions, customs, and heritage of South Africa’s Indigenous tribes. By protecting their rights, we ensure the continuity and appreciation of their valuable cultural heritage. The Importance of Indigenous Rights Recognition and protection of indigenous rights is crucial for their well-being. Addressing historical injustices ensures a fair treatment for indigenous communities. Advocacy and empowerment are vital for indigenous tribes to thrive and preserve their culture. Frequently Asked Questions For Indigenous Tribes Of South Africa: Traditions, Customs, And Heritage What Are The Indigenous Tribes Of South Africa? The indigenous tribes of South Africa include the Zulu, Xhosa, Basotho, and many others. Each tribe has its own unique customs, traditions, and languages, contributing to the rich cultural heritage of the country. What Are The Traditional Customs Of South African Tribes? Traditional customs of South African tribes often include rites of passage, ceremonies, and practices that are passed down through generations. These customs play a significant role in preserving the cultural identity and heritage of the indigenous tribes. How Do South African Tribes Preserve Their Heritage? South African tribes preserve their heritage through oral storytelling, traditional music and dance, and the passing down of cultural practices from one generation to the next. These methods help to ensure that their rich traditions and customs endure over time. Conclusion The Indigenous tribes of South Africa embody a rich tapestry of traditions, customs, and heritage that have been passed down through generations. Through their vibrant rituals, art forms, and oral storytelling, these tribes have managed to preserve their unique identity and ancestral knowledge. Exploring their ways of life and appreciation for nature is not only culturally enlightening but also allows a deeper understanding of our shared humanity. Immerse yourself in the wonders of South Africa’s indigenous tribes and embrace the beauty of their diverse heritage. MAASAI PEOPLE The Maasai Tribe Of East Africa Maasai is the second most popular African tribe after Zulu; and it’s mainly because of its deeply rooted traditions and culture. Even when a great majority of African tribes are adopting a modern lifestyle; Maasais still live in Bomas and nomadically move around with large herds of cattle for a living. They mainly feed on meat, drink raw animal blood, and can be spotted anywhere in East Africa; especially Kenya, wearing Shukas and exceptionally beaded jewels. The Maasai (/ˈmɑːsaɪ, mɑːˈsaɪ/ ; Swahili : Wamasai) are a Nilotic ethnic group inhabiting northern, central and southern Kenya and northern Tanzania , near the African Great Lakes region. Their native language is the Maasai language , a Nilotic language related to Dinka , Kalenjin and Nuer . Except for some elders living in rural areas, most Maasai people speak the official languages of Kenya and Tanzania—Swahili and English . The Maasai population has been reported as numbering 1,189,522 in Kenya in the 2019 census. compared to 377,089 in the 1989 census, though many Maasai view the census as government meddling and therefore either refuse to participate or actively provide false information. History The Maasai inhabit the African Great Lakes region and arrived via South Sudan . Most Nilotic speakers in the area, including the Maasai, the Turkana and the Kalenjin , are pastoralists and have a reputation as fearsome warriors and cattle rustlers. The Maasai and other groups in East Africa have adopted customs and practices from neighbouring Cushitic-speaking groups, including the age-set system of social organisation, circumcision , and vocabulary terms. Origin, migration and assimilation Maasai man Many ethnic groups that had already formed settlements in the region were forcibly displaced[when? ] by the incoming Maasai. Other, mainly Southern Cushitic groups, were assimilated into Maasai society. The Nilotic ancestors of the Kalenjin likewise absorbed some early Cushitic populations. Settlement in East Africa The Maasai territory reached its largest size in the mid-19th century and covered almost all of the Great Rift Valley and adjacent lands from Mount Marsabit in the north to Dodoma in the south. At this time the Maasai, as well as the larger Nilotic group they were part of, raised cattle as far east as the Tanga coast in Tanganyika (now mainland Tanzania). Raiders used spears and shields but were most feared for throwing clubs (orinka) which could be accurately thrown from up to 70 paces (approx. 100 metres). In 1852, there was a report of a concentration of 800 Maasai warriors on the move in what is now Kenya. In 1857, after having depopulated the "Wakuafi wilderness" in what is now southeastern Kenya, Maasai warriors threatened Mombasa on the Kenyan coast. Maasai warriors in German East Africa , c. 1906–1918 Because of this migration, the Maasai are the southernmost Nilotic speakers. The period of expansion was followed by the Maasai "Emutai" of 1883–1902. This period was marked by epidemics of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia , rinderpest (see 1890s African rinderpest epizootic ), and smallpox . The estimate first put forward by a German lieutenant in what was then northwest Tanganyika , was that 90% of cattle and half of wild animals perished from rinderpest. German doctors in the same area claimed that "every second" African had a pock-marked face as the result of smallpox. This period coincided with drought. Rains failed in 1897 and 1898. The Austrian explorer Oscar Baumann travelled in Maasai lands between 1891 and 1893 and described the old Maasai settlement in the Ngorongoro Crater in the 1894 book Durch Massailand zur Nilquelle ("Through the lands of the Maasai to the source of the Nile"). By one estimate two-thirds of the Maasai died during this period. Maasai in Tanganyika (now mainland Tanzania) were displaced from the fertile lands between Mount Meru and Mount Kilimanjaro , and most of the fertile highlands near Ngorongoro in the 1940s. More land was taken to create wildlife reserves and national parks: Amboseli National Park , Nairobi National Park , Maasai Mara , Samburu National Reserve , Lake Nakuru National Park and Tsavo in Kenya; and Lake Manyara , Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tarangire[22] and Serengeti National Park in what is now Tanzania. Maasai are pastoralists and have resisted the urging of the Tanzanian and Kenyan governments to adopt a more sedentary lifestyle. They have demanded grazing rights to many of the national parks in both countries. The Maasai people stood against slavery and never condoned the traffic of human beings, and outsiders looking for people to enslave avoided the Maasai. Essentially there are twenty-two geographic sectors or sub-tribes of the Maasai community, each one having its customs, appearance, leadership and dialects. These subdivisions are known as 'nations' or 'iloshon' in the Maa language : the Keekonyokie , Ildamat, Purko, Wuasinkishu, Siria, Laitayiok, Loitai, Ilkisonko, Matapato, Dalalekutuk, Ilooldokilani, Ilkaputiei, Moitanik, Ilkirasha, Samburu , Ilchamus, Laikipiak , Loitokitoki, Larusa, Salei, Sirinket and Parakuyo . Genetics Recent advances in genetic analyses have helped shed some light on the ethnogenesis of the Maasai people. Genetic genealogy , a tool that uses the genes of modern populations to trace their ethnic and geographic origins, has also helped clarify the possible background of modern Maasai. Autosomal DNA The Maasai's autosomal DNA has been examined in a comprehensive study by Tishkoff et al. (2009) on the genetic affiliations of various populations in Africa. According to the study's authors, the Maasai "have maintained their culture in the face of extensive genetic introgression". Tishkoff et al. also indicate that: "Many Nilo-Saharan-speaking populations in East Africa, such as the Maasai, show multiple cluster assignments from the Nilo-Saharan [...] and Cushitic [...] AACs, in accord with linguistic evidence of repeated Nilotic assimilation of Cushites over the past 3000 years and with the high frequency of a shared East African–specific mutation associated with lactose tolerance." Maasai display significant West-Eurasian admixture at roughly ~20%. This type of West-Eurasian ancestry reaches up to 40-50% among specific populations of the Horn of Africa , specifically among Amharas . Genetic data and archeologic evidence suggest that East African pastoralists received West Eurasian ancestry (~25%) through Afroasiatic-speaking groups from Northern Africa or the Arabian Peninsula , and later spread this ancestry component southwards into certain Khoisan groups roughly 2,000 years ago, resulting in ~5% West-Eurasian ancestry among Southern African hunter-gatherers. A 2019 archaeogenetic study sampled ancient remains from Neolithic inhabitants of Tanzania and Kenya, and found them to have strongest affinities with modern Horn of Africa groups. They modelled the Maasai community as having ancestry that is ~47% Pastoral Neolithic Cushitic-related and ~53% Sudanese Dinka-related. Y-DNA A Y chromosome study by Wood et al. (2005) tested various Sub-Saharan populations, including 26 Maasai men from Kenya, for paternal lineages. The authors observed haplogroup E1b1b -M35 (not M78) in 35% of the studied Maasai. E1b1b-M35-M78 in 15%, their ancestor with the more northerly Cushitic men, who possess the haplogroup at high frequencies lived more than 13,000 years ago. The second most frequent paternal lineage among the Maasai was Haplogroup A3b2 , which is commonly found in Nilotic populations, such as the Alur ; it was observed in 27% of Maasai men. The third most frequently observed paternal DNA marker in the Maasai was E1b1a1-M2 (E-P1), which is very common in the Sub-Saharan region; it was found in 12% of the Maasai samples. Haplogroup B-M60 was also observed in 8% of the studied Maasai, which is also found in 30% (16/53) of Southern Sudanese Nilotes. Mitochondrial DNA According to an mtDNA study by Castri et al. (2008), which tested Maasai individuals in Kenya, the maternal lineages found among the Maasai are quite diverse but similar in overall frequency to that observed in other Nilo-Hamitic populations from the region, such as the Samburu . Most of the tested Maasai belonged to various macro-haplogroup L sub-clades, including L0 , L2 , L3 , L4 and L5 . Some maternal gene flow from North and Northeast Africa was also reported, particularly via the presence of mtDNA haplogroup M lineages in about 12.5% of the Maasai samples. Culture Maasai warriors confronting a spotted hyena , a common livestock predator, as photographed in In Wildest Africa (1907) The monotheistic Maasai worship a single deity called Enkai, Nkai, or Engai. Engai has a dual nature, represented by two colours: Engai Narok (Black God) is benevolent, and Engai Na-nyokie (Red God) is vengeful. There are also two pillars or totems of Maasai society: Oodo Mongi, the Red Cow and Orok Kiteng, the Black Cow with a subdivision of five clans or family trees . The Maasai also have a totemic animal, which is the lion. The killing of a lion is used by the Maasai in the rite of passage ceremony. The "Mountain of God", Ol Doinyo Lengai , is located in northernmost Tanzania and can be seen from Lake Natron in southernmost Kenya. The central human figure in the Maasai religious system is the laibon whose roles include shamanistic healing , divination and prophecy , and ensuring success in war or adequate rainfall. Today, they have a political role as well due to the elevation of leaders. Whatever power an individual laibon had was a function of personality rather than position. Many Maasai have also adopted Christianity or Islam . The Maasai produce intricate jewellery and sell these items to tourists. Maasai people and huts with enkang barrier in foreground –eastern Serengeti , 2006 Educating Maasai women to use clinics and hospitals during pregnancy has enabled more infants to survive. The exception is found in extremely remote areas. A corpse rejected by scavengers is seen as having something wrong with it, and liable to cause social disgrace; therefore, it is not uncommon for bodies to be covered in fat and blood from a slaughtered ox . Traditional Maasai lifestyle centres around their cattle , which constitute their primary source of food. In a patriarchal culture that views women as property, a man's wealth is measured in cattle, wives and children. A herd of 50 cattle is respectable, and the more wives and children the better. A man who has plenty of one but not the other is considered to be poor. All of the Maasai's needs for food are met by their cattle. They eat their meat, drink their milk daily, and drink their blood on occasion. Bulls, goats, and lambs are slaughtered for meat on special occasions and ceremonies. Though the Maasai's entire way of life has historically depended on their cattle, more recently with their cattle dwindling, the Maasai have grown dependent on food such as sorghum , rice, potatoes and cabbage (known to the Maasai as goat leaves). One common misconception about the Maasai is that each young man is supposed to kill a lion before he can be circumcised and enter adulthood. Lion hunting was an activity of the past, but it has been banned in East Africa – yet lions are still hunted when they maul Maasai livestock. Nevertheless, killing a lion gives one great value and celebrity status in the community. Maasai school in Tanzania Body modification Maasai woman with stretched earlobes The piercing and stretching of earlobes are common among the Maasai as with other tribes, and both men and women wear metal hoops on their stretched earlobes. Various materials have been used to both pierce and stretch the lobes, including thorns for piercing, twigs, bundles of twigs, stones, the cross-section of elephant tusks and empty film canisters. Women wear various forms of beaded ornaments in both the ear lobe and smaller piercings at the top of the ear. Among Maasai males, circumcision is practised as a ritual of transition from boyhood to manhood. Women are also circumcised (as described below in social organisation ). This belief and practice are not unique to the Maasai. In rural Kenya, a group of 95 children aged between six months and two years were examined in 1991/92. 87% were found to have undergone the removal of one or more deciduous canine tooth buds. In an older age group (3–7 years of age), 72% of the 111 children examined exhibited missing mandibular or maxillary deciduous canines. Genital cutting Young Maasai warrior (a junior Moran) with headdress and markings Traditionally, the Maasai conduct elaborate rite of passage rituals which include surgical genital mutilation to initiate children into adulthood. The Maa word for circumcision , "emorata," is applied to this ritual for both males and females. This ritual is typically performed by the elders, who use a sharpened knife and makeshift cattle hide bandages for the procedure. The male ceremony refers to the excision of the prepuce (foreskin). In the male ceremony, the boy is expected to endure the operation in silence. Expressions of pain bring dishonour upon him, albeit only temporarily. Importantly, any exclamations or unexpected movements on the part of the boy can cause the elder to make a mistake in the delicate and tedious process, which can result in severe lifelong scarring, dysfunction, and pain. Young women also undergo female genital mutilation as part of an elaborate rite of passage ritual called "Emuatare," the ceremony that initiates young Maasai girls into adulthood through ritual mutilation and then into early arranged marriages. The Maasai believe that female genital mutilation is necessary and Maasai men may reject any woman who has not undergone it as either not marriageable or worthy of a much-reduced bride price. In Eastern Africa, uncircumcised women, even highly educated members of parliament like Linah Kilimo , can be accused of not being mature enough to be taken seriously. The Maasai activist Agnes Pareyio campaigns against the practice. The female rite of passage ritual has recently seen excision replaced in rare instances with a "cutting with words" ceremony involving singing and dancing in its place. However, despite changes to the law and education drives, the practice remains deeply ingrained, highly valued, and nearly universally practised by members of the culture. Hair Maasai woman with short hair Upon reaching the age of 3 "moons", the child is named and the head is shaved clean apart from a tuft of hair, which resembles a cockade , from the nape of the neck to the forehead. Among the men, warriors are the only members of the Maasai community to wear long hair, which they weave in thinly braided strands. Graduation from warrior to junior elder takes place at a large gathering known as Eunoto. The long hair of the former warriors is shaved off ; elders must wear their hair short. Warriors who do not have sexual relations with women who have not undergone the "Emuatare" ceremony are especially honoured at the Eunoto gathering. This would symbolise the healing of the woman. Two days before boys are circumcised, their heads are shaved. When warriors go through the Eunoto and become elders, their long plaited hair is shaved off. Music and dance Traditional jumping dance Maasai music traditionally consists of rhythms provided by a chorus of vocalists singing harmonies while a song leader, or olaranyani, sings the melody. Unlike most other African tribes, Maasai widely use drone polyphony . Women chant lullabies, humming songs, and songs praising their sons. Nambas, the call-and-response pattern, repetition of nonsensical phrases, monophonic melodies, repeated phrases following each verse being sung on a descending scale, and singers responding to their verses are characteristic of singing by women. When many Maasai women gather together, they sing and dance among themselves. Eunoto, the coming-of-age ceremony of the warrior, can involve ten or more days of singing, dancing and ritual. The warriors of the Il-Oodokilani perform a kind of march-past as well as the Adumu , or aigus, sometimes referred to as "the jumping dance" by non-Maasai. (Both adumu and aigus are Maa verbs meaning "to jump" with adumu meaning "To jump up and down in a dance". Diet A Maasai herdsman grazing his cattle inside the Ngorongoro crater , Tanzania Traditionally, the Maasai diet consisted of raw meat, raw milk, honey and raw blood from cattle —note that the Maasai cattle are of the Zebu variety Most of the milk is consumed as fermented milk or buttermilk (a by-product of butter making). Milk consumption figures are very high by any standards. The Maasai herd goats and sheep, including the Red Maasai sheep , as well as the more prized cattle. Although consumed as snacks, fruits constitute a major part of the food ingested by children and women looking after cattle as well as morans in the bush. A tradition Medicines And Herbs Hawker From Maasai Medicine The Maasai people traditionally used the environment when making their medicines, and many still do, due to the high cost of Western treatments. These medicines are derived from trees, shrubs, stems, roots, etc. These can then be used in a multitude of ways including being boiled in soups and ingested to improve digestion and cleanse the blood. Some of these remedies can also be used in the treatment or prevention of diseases. The Maasai people also add herbs to different foods to avoid stomach upsets and give digestive aid. The use of plant-based medicine remains an important part of Maasai life. Shelter Shelter covered in cattle dung for waterproofing Panoramic view of Maasai Enkang, seen from the inside Panoramic view of Maasai Enkang, seen from the outside Clothing A Maasai woman wearing her finest clothes Maasai clothing symbolises ethnic group membership, a pastoralist lifestyle, as well as an individual's social position. From this they can decide the roles they undertake for the tribe. Jewellery also can show an individual's gender, relationship status, and age. Maasai traditional clothing is both a means of tribal identification and symbolism: young men, for example, wear black for several months following their circumcision. The Maasai began to replace animal skin, calf hides and sheep skin with commercial cotton cloth in the 1960s. Shúkà is the Maa word for sheets traditionally worn and wrapped around the body. These are typically red , sometimes integrated with other colours and patterns.[100] One-piece garments known as kanga , a Swahili term, are common. Maasai near the coast may wear kikoi , a sarong -like garment that comes in many different colours and textiles Influences from the outside world Maasai women repairing a house in Maasai Mara (1996) A traditional pastoral lifestyle has become increasingly difficult due to modern outside influences. Garrett Hardin 's article outlining the "tragedy of the commons", as well as Melville Herskovits ' "cattle complex" influenced ecologists and policymakers about the harm Maasai pastoralists were causing to savannah rangelands. This was later contested by some anthropologists . British colonial policymakers in 1951 removed all Maasai from the Serengeti National Park and relegated them to areas in and around the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA). Maasai wearing protective masks during COVID-19 pandemic . Maasai riding a motorcycle (2014) Due to an increasing population, loss of cattle due to disease, and lack of available rangelands because of new park boundaries and competition from other tribes, the Maasai were forced to develop new ways of sustaining themselves. Many Maasai began to cultivate maize and other crops to get by, a practice that was culturally viewed negatively. Cultivation was first introduced to the Maasai by displaced WaArusha and WaMeru women who married Maasai men. In 1975 the Ngorongoro Conservation Area banned cultivation, forcing the tribe to participate in Tanzania's economy. They have to sell animals and traditional medicines to buy food. The ban on cultivation was lifted in 1992 and cultivation became an important part of Maasai livelihood once more. Park boundaries and land privatisation has continued to limit the Maasai livestock's grazing area. Throughout the years, various projects have attempted to help the Maasai people. These projects help find ways to preserve Maasai traditions while also encouraging modern education for their children. Emerging employment among the Maasai people include farming, business, and wage employment in both the public and private sectors. Many Maasai have also moved away from the nomadic life to positions in commerce and government. Eviction from ancestral land The Maasai community was reportedly being targeted with live ammunition and tear gas in June 2022 in Tanzania , in a government plan to seize a piece of Maasai land for elite private luxury development. Lawyers, human rights groups, and activists who brought the matter to light claimed that Tanzanian security forces tried to forcefully evict the indigenous Maasai people from their ancestral land for the establishment of a luxury game reserve by Otterlo Business Corporation (OBC) for the royals ruling the United Arab Emirates . As of 18 June 2022, approximately 30 Maasai people had been injured and at least one killed, at the hands of the Tanzanian government Field Force Unit (FFU) while protesting the government’s plans of what it claims are delimiting a 1500 sq km of land as a game reserve, an act which violates a 2018 East African Court of Justice (EACJ) injunction on the land dispute, per local activists. By reclassifying the area as a game reserve, the authorities aimed to systematically expropriate Maasai settlements and grazing in the area, experts warned. This was not the first time Maasai territory was encroached upon. Big-game hunting firms along with the government have long attacked the groups. The 2022 attacks are the latest escalation, which has left more than 150,000 Maasai displaced from the Loliondo and Ngorongoro areas as per the United Nations . A hunting concession already situated in Loliondo is owned by OBC, a company that has been allegedly linked to the significantly wealthy Emirati royal family as per Tanzanian lawyers, environmentalists as well as human rights activists. Anuradha Mittal, the executive director of the environmental think-tank, Oakland Institute cited that OBC was not a "safari company for just everyone, it has operations for the royal family". A 2019 United Nations report described OBC as a luxury-game hunting company "based in the United Arab Emirates" that was granted a hunting license by the Tanzanian government in 1992 permitting "the UAE royal family to organise private hunting trips" in addition to denying the Maasai people access to their ancestral land and water for herding cattle. When approached, the UAE government refrained from giving any statements. Meanwhile, the OBC commented on the matter without addressing alleged links with Emirati royals, stating that "there is no eviction in Loliondo" and calling it a "reserve land protected area" owned by the government. Notable Maasai Linus Kaikai - Kenyan journalist and Chair of the Kenya Editors Guild Francis Ole Kaparo – Former Speaker of the National Assembly of Kenya James Ole Kiyiapi – associate professor at Moi University and permanent secretary in the Ministries of Education and Local Government Olekina Ledama – Founder, Maasai Education Discovery Stanley Shapashina Oloitiptip - Former Kenya politician and cabinet minister Josephine Lemoyan – social scientist, Tanzanian member of the 2017-2022 East African Legislative Assembly [113] Nice Nailantei Lengete – First woman to address the Maasai elders council at Mount Kilimanjaro , and persuaded the council to ban female genital mutilation among the Maasai across Kenya and Tanzania Joseph Ole Lenku – Cabinet Secretary of Kenya for Interior and Coordination of National Government from 2012 to 2014 Edward Lowassa – Prime Minister of Tanzania from 2005 to 2008. 2nd runner up to president John Pombe Magufuli in the 2015 Tanzania General Elections. Mbatian - Prophet after whom Batian Peak, the highest peak of Mount Kenya , is named Katoo Ole Metito – Member of Parliament for Kajiado South sub county Joseph Nkaissery – Former Cabinet Secretary of Kenya for Interior and Coordination of National Government from 2014 to his death in 2017 William Ole Ntimama – Former Kenyan politician and leader of the Maa community Damaris Parsitau – gender equality advocate, feminist, and scholar David Rudisha – Middle-distance runner and 800-meter world record holder George Saitoti - former Vice-president of Kenya Moses ole Sakuda - Kenyan politician Jackson Ole Sapit - Sixth Archbishop and Primate of the Anglican Church of Kenya Edward Sokoine – Prime Minister of Tanzania from 1977 to 1980 and again from 1983 to 1984 Sanaipei Tande - Kenyan musical artist SAN BUSHMAN PEOPLE The San Bushmen Of Southern Africa If you thought everything in “The gods must be crazy” film was all acted up, then wait until you observe the daily lives of the San Bushmen. To begin with, this is the tribe that consists of people who have inhabited Western Botswana and Makgadikgadi pans for centuries. That’s to say they’ve literally survived living in an arid area, which has no drop of water to be spotted anywhere. And not only do they depend on setting animal traps for feeding, but also feed on tubers and roots. Dressed in loincloths, the tribesmen swing bows and arrows on their shoulders, as they lead the way and factually make tobacco from zebras’ dung. The San peoples (also Saan), or Bushmen, are the members of any of the indigenous hunter-gatherer cultures of southern Africa, and the oldest surviving cultures of the region. They are thought to have diverged from other humans 100,000 to 200,000 years ago.[a] [4] Their recent ancestral territories span Botswana , Namibia , Angola , Zambia , Zimbabwe , Lesotho , and South Africa . The San speak, or their ancestors spoke, languages of the Khoe , Tuu , and Kxʼa language families, and can be defined as a people only in contrast to neighboring pastoralists such as the Khoekhoe and descendants of more recent waves of immigration such as the Bantu , Europeans , and Asians . In 2017, Botswana was home to approximately 63,500 San, making it the country with the highest proportion of San people at 2.8%. 71,201 San people were enumerated in Namibia in 2023, making it the country with the second highest proportion of San people at 2.4%. Definition In Khoekhoegowab , the term "San" has a long vowel and is spelled Sān. It is an exonym meaning "foragers" and is used in a derogatory manner to describe people too poor to have cattle. Based on observation of lifestyle, this term has been applied to speakers of three distinct language families living between the Okavango River in Botswana and Etosha National Park in northwestern Namibia , extending up into southern Angola ; central peoples of most of Namibia and Botswana, extending into Zambia and Zimbabwe ; and the southern people in the central Kalahari towards the Molopo River , who are the last remnant of the previously extensive indigenous peoples of southern Africa. Names Portrait of a bushman. Alfred Duggan-Cronin. South Africa, early 20th century. The Wellcome Collection, London. The designations "Bushmen" and "San" are both exonyms . The San have no collective word for themselves in their own languages. "San" comes from a derogatory Khoekhoe word used to refer to foragers without cattle or other wealth, from a root saa "picking up from the ground" + plural -n in the Haiǁom dialect . "Bushmen" is the older cover term, but "San" was widely adopted in the West by the late 1990s. The term Bushmen, from 17th-century Dutch Bosjesmans, is still used by others and to self-identify, but is now considered pejorative or derogatory by many South Africans.[10 In 2008, the use of boesman (the modern Afrikaans equivalent of "Bushman") in the Die Burger newspaper was brought before the Equality Court . The San Council testified that it had no objection to its use in a positive context, and the court ruled that the use of the term was not derogatory. The San refer to themselves as their individual nations, such as ǃKung (also spelled ǃXuun, including the Juǀʼhoansi ), ǀXam , Nǁnǂe (part of the ǂKhomani), Kxoe (Khwe and ǁAni), Haiǁom , Ncoakhoe , Tshuwau , Gǁana and Gǀui (ǀGwi) , etc. Representatives of San peoples in 2003 stated their preference for the use of such individual group names, where possible, over the use of the collective term San. Adoption of the Khoekhoe term San in Western anthropology dates to the 1970s, and this remains the standard term in English-language ethnographic literature, although some authors later switched back to using the name Bushmen. The compound Khoisan is used to refer to the pastoralist Khoi and the foraging San collectively. It was coined by Leonhard Schulze in the 1920s and popularized by Isaac Schapera in 1930. Anthropological use of San was detached from the compound Khoisan, as it has been reported that the exonym San is perceived as a pejorative in parts of the central Kalahari. By the late 1990s, the term San was used generally by the people themselves. The adoption of the term was preceded by a number of meetings held in the 1990s where delegates debated on the adoption of a collective term. These meetings included the Common Access to Development Conference organized by the Government of Botswana held in Gaborone in 1993, the 1996 inaugural Annual General Meeting of the Working Group of Indigenous Minorities in Southern Africa (WIMSA) held in Namibia, and a 1997 conference in Cape Town on "Khoisan Identities and Cultural Heritage" organized by the University of the Western Cape . The term San is now standard in South African, and used officially in the blazon of the national coat-of-arms . The "South African San Council" representing San communities in South Africa was established as part of WIMSA in 2001. The term Basarwa (singular Mosarwa) is used for the San collectively in Botswana. The term is a Bantu (Tswana ) word meaning "those who do not rear cattle", that is, equivalent to Khoekhoe Saan. The mo-/ba- noun class prefixes are used for people; the older variant Masarwa, with the le-/ma- prefixes used for disreputable people and animals, is offensive and was changed at independence. In Angola, they are sometimes referred to as mucancalas, or bosquímanos (a Portuguese adaptation of the Dutch term for "Bushmen"). The terms Amasili and Batwa are sometimes used for them in Zimbabwe . The San are also referred to as Batwa by Xhosa people and as Baroa by Sotho people . The Bantu term Batwa refers to any foraging tribesmen and as such overlaps with the terminology used for the "Pygmoid" Southern Twa of South-Central Africa. History Bush-Men Hottentots armed for an Expedition, 1804 The hunter-gatherer San are among the oldest cultures on Earth, and are thought to be descended from the first inhabitants of what is now Botswana and South Africa. The historical presence of the San in Botswana is particularly evident in northern Botswana's Tsodilo Hills region. San were traditionally semi-nomadic , moving seasonally within certain defined areas based on the availability of resources such as water, game animals , and edible plants. Peoples related to or similar to the San occupied the southern shores throughout the eastern shrubland and may have formed a Sangoan continuum from the Red Sea to the Cape of Good Hope . Early San society left a rich legacy of cave paintings across Southern Africa. In the Bantu expansion (2000 BC - 1000 AD), San were driven off their ancestral lands or incorporated by Bantu speaking groups .  The San were believed to have closer connections to the old spirits of the land, and were often turned to by other societies for rainmaking, as was the case at Mapungubwe . San shamans would enter a trance and go into the spirit world themselves to capture the animals associated with rain. By the end of the 18th century after the arrival of the Dutch, thousands of San had been killed and forced to work for the colonists. The British tried to "civilize" the San and make them adopt a more agricultural lifestyle, but were not successful. By the 1870s, the last San of the Cape were hunted to extinction, while other San were able to survive. The South African government used to issue licenses for people to hunt the San, with the last one being reportedly issued in Namibia in 1936. From the 1950s through to the 1990s, San communities switched to farming because of government-mandated modernization programs. Despite the lifestyle changes, they have provided a wealth of information in anthropology and genetics . One broad study of African genetic diversity , completed in 2009, found that the genetic diversity of the San was among the top five of all 121 sampled populations. Certain San groups are one of 14 known extant "ancestral population clusters"; that is, "groups of with common genetic ancestry, who share ethnicity and similarities in both their culture and the properties of their languages". Despite some positive aspects of government development programs reported by members of San and Bakgalagadi communities in Botswana, many have spoken of a consistent sense of exclusion from government decision-making processes, and many San and Bakgalagadi have alleged experiencing ethnic discrimination on the part of the government.: 8–9  The United States Department of State described ongoing discrimination against San, or Basarwa, people in Botswana in 2013 as the "principal human rights concern" of that country. Society Further information: San healing practices , San rock art , and San religion Drinking water from the bi bulb plant Starting a fire by hand Preparing poison arrows San man The San kinship system reflects their history as traditionally small mobile foraging bands. San kinship is similar to Inuit kinship , which uses the same set of terms as in European cultures but adds a name rule and an age rule for determining what terms to use. The age rule resolves any confusion arising from kinship terms, as the older of two people always decides what to call the younger. Relatively few names circulate (approximately 35 names per sex), and each child is named after a grandparent or another relative, but never their parents. Children have no social duties besides playing, and leisure is very important to San of all ages. Large amounts of time are spent in conversation, joking, music, and sacred dances. Women may be leaders of their own family groups. They may also make important family and group decisions and claim ownership of water holes and foraging areas. Women are mainly involved in the gathering of food, but sometimes also partake in hunting. Water is important in San life. During long droughts, they make use of sip wells in order to collect water. To make a sip well, a San scrapes a deep hole where the sand is damp, and inserts a long hollow grass stem into the hole. An empty ostrich egg is used to collect the water. Water is sucked into the straw from the sand, into the mouth, and then travels down another straw into the ostrich egg. Traditionally, the San were an egalitarian society. Although they had hereditary chiefs , their authority was limited. The San made decisions among themselves by consensus , with women treated as relative equals in decision making. San economy was a gift economy , based on giving each other gifts regularly rather than on trading or purchasing goods and services. Most San are monogamous , but if a hunter is able to obtain enough food, he can afford to have a second wife as well. Subsistence Villages range in sturdiness from nightly rain shelters in the warm spring (when people move constantly in search of budding greens), to formalized rings, wherein people congregate in the dry season around permanent waterholes. Early spring is the hardest season: a hot dry period following the cool, dry winter. Most plants still are dead or dormant, and supplies of autumn nuts are exhausted. Meat is particularly important in the dry months when wildlife cannot range far from the receding waters. Women gather fruit, berries, tubers, bush onions, and other plant materials for the band's consumption. Ostrich eggs are gathered, and the empty shells are used as water containers. Insects provide perhaps 10% of animal proteins consumed, most often during the dry season.[51] Depending on location, the San consume 18 to 104 species, including grasshoppers, beetles, caterpillars, moths, butterflies, and termites. Women's traditional gathering gear is simple and effective: a hide sling, a blanket, a cloak called a kaross to carry foodstuffs, firewood, smaller bags, a digging stick, and perhaps, a smaller version of the kaross to carry a baby. Men, and presumably women when they accompany them, hunt in long, laborious tracking excursions. They kill their game using bow and arrows and spears tipped in diamphotoxin , a slow-acting arrow poison produced by beetle larvae of the genus Diamphidia . Early history Wandering hunters (Masarwa Bushmen), North Kalahari desert, published in 1892 (from H. A. Bryden photogr.) A set of tools almost identical to that used by the modern San and dating to 42,000 BC was discovered at Border Cave in KwaZulu-Natal in 2012. In 2006, what is thought to be the world's oldest ritual is interpreted as evidence which would make the San culture the oldest still practiced culture today. Historical evidence shows that certain San communities have always lived in the desert regions of the Kalahari; however, eventually nearly all other San communities in southern Africa were forced into this region. The Kalahari San remained in poverty where their richer neighbours denied them rights to the land. Before long, in both Botswana and Namibia, they found their territory drastically reduced.[59] Genetics Various Y chromosome studies show that the San carry some of the most divergent (earliest branching) human Y-chromosome haplogroups . These haplogroups are specific sub-groups of haplogroups A and B , the two earliest branches on the human Y-chromosome tree . Mitochondrial DNA studies also provide evidence that the San carry high frequencies of the earliest haplogroup branches in the human mitochondrial DNA tree. This DNA is inherited only from one's mother. The most divergent (earliest branching) mitochondrial haplogroup, L0d , has been identified at its highest frequencies in the southern African San groups. In a study published in March 2011, Brenna Henn and colleagues found that the ǂKhomani San, as ell as the Sandawe and Hadza peoples of Tanzania , were the most genetically diverse of any living humans studied. This high degree of genetic diversity hints at the origin of anatomically modern humans . A 2008 study suggested that the San may have been isolated from other original ancestral groups for as much as 50,000 to 100,000 years and later rejoined, re-integrating into the rest of the human gene pool. A DNA study of fully sequenced genomes, published in September 2016, showed that the ancestors of today's San hunter-gatherers began to diverge from other human populations in Africa about 200,000 years ago and were fully isolated by 100,000 years ago. Ancestral land conflict in Botswana Main article: Ancestral land conflict in Botswana San family in Botswana According to professors Robert K. Hitchcock, Wayne A. Babchuk, "In 1652, when Europeans established a full-time presence in Southern Africa, there were some 300,000 San and 600,000 Khoekhoe in Southern Africa. During the early phases of European colonization, tens of thousands of Khoekhoe and San peoples lost their lives as a result of genocide, murder, physical mistreatment, and disease. There were cases of “Bushman hunting” in which commandos (mobile paramilitary units or posses) sought to dispatch San and Khoekhoe in various parts of Southern Africa." Much aboriginal people 's land in Botswana, including land occupied by the San people (or Basarwa), was conquered during colonization. Loss of land and access to natural resources continued after Botswana's independence.  The San have been particularly affected by encroachment by majority peoples and non-indigenous farmers onto their traditional land. Government policies from the 1970s transferred a significant area of traditionally San land to majority agro-pastoralist tribes and white settlers  Much of the government's policy regarding land tended to favor the dominant Tswana peoples over the minority San and Bakgalagadi .  Loss of land is a major contributor to the problems facing Botswana's indigenous people, including especially the San's eviction from the Central Kalahari Game Reserve .  The government of Botswana decided to relocate all of those living within the reserve to settlements outside it. Harassment of residents, dismantling of infrastructure, and bans on hunting appear to have been used to induce residents to leave.  The government has denied that any of the relocation was forced.A legal battle followed. The relocation policy may have been intended to facilitate diamond mining by Gem Diamonds within the reserve. Hoodia traditional knowledge agreement Hoodia gordonii , used by the San, was patented by the South African Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) in 1998, for its presumed appetite suppressing quality, although, according to a 2006 review, no published scientific evidence supported hoodia as an appetite suppressant in humans. A licence was granted to Phytopharm , for development of the active ingredient in the Hoodia plant, p57 (glycoside), to be used as a pharmaceutical drug for dieting. Once this patent was brought to the attention of the San, a benefit-sharing agreement was reached between them and the CSIR in 2003. This would award royalties to the San for the benefits of their indigenous knowledge. During the case, the San people were represented and assisted by the Working Group of Indigenous Minorities in Southern Africa (WIMSA), the South African San Council and the South African San Institute. This benefit-sharing agreement is one of the first to give royalties to the holders of traditional knowledge used for drug sales. The terms of the agreement are contentious, because of their apparent lack of adherence to the Bonn Guidelines on Access to Genetic Resources and Benefit Sharing, as outlined in the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). The San have yet to profit from this agreement, as P57 has still not yet been legally developed and marketed. Representation in mass media Rock paintings in the Cederberg , Western Cape San paintings near Murewa , Zimbabwe San paintings near Murewa Early representations The San of the Kalahari were first brought to the globalized world's attention in the 1950s by South African author Laurens van der Post . Van der Post grew up in South Africa, and had a respectful lifelong fascination with native African cultures. In 1955, he was commissioned by the BBC to go to the Kalahari desert with a film crew in search of the San. The filmed material was turned into a very popular six-part television documentary a year later. Driven by a lifelong fascination with this "vanished tribe," Van der Post published a 1958 book about this expedition, entitled The Lost World of the Kalahari. It was to be his most famous book. In 1961, he published The Heart of the Hunter, a narrative which he admits in the introduction uses two previous works of stories and mythology as "a sort of Stone Age Bible," namely Specimens of Bushman Folklore ' (1911), collected by Wilhelm H. I. Bleek and Lucy C. Lloyd , and Dorothea Bleek 's Mantis and His Friend. Van der Post's work brought indigenous African cultures to millions of people around the world for the first time, but some people disparaged it as part of the subjective view of a European in the 1950s and 1960s, stating that he branded the San as simple "children of Nature" or even "mystical ecologists." In 1992 by John Perrot and team published the book "Bush for the Bushman" – a "desperate plea" on behalf of the aboriginal San addressing the international community and calling on the governments throughout Southern Africa to respect and reconstitute the ancestral land-rights of all San. Documentaries and non-fiction This section contains promotional content . Please help improve it by removing promotional language and inappropriate external links , and by adding encyclopedic text written from a neutral point of view . (July 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this message ) John Marshall, the son of Harvard anthropologist Lorna Marshall , documented the lives of San in the Nyae Nyae region of Namibia over a period spanning more than 50-years. His early film The Hunters, shows a giraffe hunt. A Kalahari Family (2002) is a series documenting 50 years in the lives of the Juǀʼhoansi of Southern Africa, from 1951 to 2000. Marshall was a vocal proponent of the San cause throughout his life.[76] His sister Elizabeth Marshall Thomas wrote several books and numerous articles about the San, based in part on her experiences living with these people when their culture was still intact. The Harmless People, published in 1959, and The Old Way: A Story of the First People, published in 2006, are two of them. John Marshall and Adrienne Miesmer documented the lives of the ǃKung San people between the 1950s and 1978 in Nǃai, the Story of a ǃKung Woman. This film, the account of a woman who grew up while the San lived as autonomous hunter-gatherers, but who later was forced into a dependent life in the government-created community at Tsumkwe, shows how the lives of the ǃKung people , who lived for millennia as hunter gatherers, were forever changed when they were forced onto a reservation too small to support them. South African film-maker Richard Wicksteed has produced a number of documentaries on San culture, history and present situation; these include In God's Places / Iindawo ZikaThixo (1995) on the San cultural legacy in the southern Drakensberg; Death of a Bushman (2002) on the murder of San tracker Optel Rooi by South African police; The Will To Survive (2009), which covers the history and situation of San communities in southern Africa today; and My Land is My Dignity (2009) on the San's epic land rights struggle in Botswana's Central Kalahari Game Reserve . A documentary on San hunting entitled, The Great Dance: A Hunter's Story (2000), directed by Damon and Craig Foster . This was reviesed by Lawrence Van Gelder for the New York Times , who said that the film "constitutes an act of preservation and a requiem." Spencer Wells 's 2003 book The Journey of Man —in connection with National Geographic 's Genographic Project —discusses a genetic analysis of the San and asserts their genetic markers were the first ones to split from those of the ancestors of the bulk of other Homo sapiens sapiens. The PBS documentary based on the book follows these markers throughout the world, demonstrating that all of humankind can be traced back to the African continent (see Recent African origin of modern humans , the so-called "out of Africa" hypothesis). The BBC's The Life of Mammals (2003) series includes video footage of an indigenous San of the Kalahari desert undertaking a persistence hunt of a kudu through harsh desert conditions. It provides an illustration of how early man may have pursued and captured prey with minimal weaponry. The BBC series How Art Made the World (2005) compares San cave paintings from 200 years ago to Paleolithic European paintings that are 14,000 years old. Because of their similarities, the San works may illustrate the reasons for ancient cave paintings. The presenter Nigel Spivey draws largely on the work of Professor David Lewis-Williams , whose PhD was entitled "Believing and Seeing: Symbolic meanings in southern San rock paintings". Lewis-Williams draws parallels with prehistoric art around the world, linking in shamanic ritual and trance states. Films and music Rock painting of a man in Twyfelfontein valley A 1969 film, Lost in the Desert , features a small boy, stranded in the desert, who encounters a group of wandering San. They help him and then abandon him as a result of a misunderstanding created by the lack of a common language and culture. The film was directed by Jamie Uys , who returned to the San a decade later with The Gods Must Be Crazy , which proved to be an international hit. This comedy portrays a Kalahari San group's first encounter with an artifact from the outside world (a Coca-Cola bottle). By the time this movie was made, the ǃKung had recently been forced into sedentary villages, and the San hired as actors were confused by the instructions to act out inaccurate exaggerations of their almost abandoned hunting and gathering life. "Eh Hee " by Dave Matthews Band was written as an evocation of the music and culture of the San. In a story told to the Radio City audience (an edited version of which appears on the DVD version of Live at Radio City ), Matthews recalls hearing the music of the San and, upon asking his guide what the words to their songs were, being told that "there are no words to these songs, because these songs, we've been singing since before people had words." He goes on to describe the song as his "homage to meeting... the most advanced people on the planet." Rock engraving of a giraffe in Twyfelfontein valley Memoirs In Peter Godwin 's biography When A Crocodile Eats the Sun, he mentions his time spent with the San for an assignment. His title comes from the San's belief that a solar eclipse occurs when a crocodile eats the sun. Novels Laurens van der Post 's two novels, A Story Like The Wind (1972) and its sequel, A Far Off Place (1974), made into a 1993 film , are about a white boy encountering a wandering San and his wife, and how the San's life and survival skills save the white teenagers' lives in a journey across the desert. James A. Michener 's The Covenant (1980), is a work of historical fiction centered on South Africa. The first section of the book concerns a San community's journey set roughly in 13,000 BC. In Wilbur Smith 's novel The Burning Shore (an instalment in the Courtneys of Africa book series ), the San people are portrayed through two major characters, O'wa and H'ani; Smith describes the San's struggles, history, and beliefs in great detail. Norman Rush 's 1991 novel Mating features an encampment of Basarwa near the (imaginary) Botswana town where the main action is set. Tad Williams 's epic Otherland series of novels features a South African San named ǃXabbu, whom Williams confesses to be highly fictionalized, and not necessarily an accurate representation. In the novel, Williams invokes aspects of San mythology and culture. In 2007, David Gilman published The Devil's Breath. One of the main characters, a small San boy named ǃKoga, uses traditional methods to help the character Max Gordon travel across Namibia. Alexander McCall Smith has written a series of episodic novels set in Gaborone , the capital of Botswana. The fiancé of the protagonist of The No. 1 Ladies' Detective Agency series, Mr. J. L. B. Matekoni, adopts two orphaned San children, sister and brother Motholeli and Puso. The San feature in several of the novels by Michael Stanley (the nom de plume of Michael Sears and Stanley Trollip), particularly in Death of the Mantis. In Christopher Hope 's book Darkest England, the San hero, David Mungo Booi, is tasked by his fellow tribesmen with asking the Queen for the protection once promised, and to evaluate the possibility of creating a colony on the island. He discovered England in the manner of 19th century Western explorers. The Top Most Famous Tribes in Africa Each of the four regions of Africa all have atleast one of the most famous tribes in Africa. Africa has an estimated total of 3,000 tribes, all of which incredibly vary in terms of language and culture. The continent itself might have evolved greatly in the past two millennia; but tribal influences continue to be a dominant force in most parts. And even though the split-up between tribes has lessened over the years; tribal affiliations still stand as a prevailing source of pride among the natives. With that in mind, let’s briefly look at the 20 most famous African tribes. In no particular order, here at the Top 20 most famous tribes in the Continent of Africa. The Yoruba Tribe Of West Africa Yoruba is undeniably one of the largest ethnic groups in Africa, with a population estimated at about 35 million people in total; the Yoruba tribe is one of the most famous tribes in Africa. They mainly occupy the South Western sides of Nigeria, as well as Southern Benin, with a great majority coming from Nigeria. The Hausa Tribe Of West Africa The Hausa are one of the largest ethnic groups in Africa, as well as the largest in West Africa. In fact, it’s not only a racially diverse ethnic group in Africa, but culturally homogenous as well, encircling the people in the Sudanian and Sahelian areas of South-eastern Niger and Northern Nigeria, with a significant number living in Chad, Togo, Cote d’Ivoire, Sudan and Ghana. They have a restricted dress code: elaborate dresses for men with striking embroideries around the neck, and colorful caps commonly referred to as file. For Hausa women, there’s the abaya wrapper, which consists of a colorful wrap cloth, matching blouse, a shawl and a head tie. The Karo Tribe of East Africa The Karo or Karaethnic group reside along the east banks of the Omo River Located in Southern Ethiopia. With an estimated population of about 2,000 people, the Karo people form one of the most famous tribes in Africa; and they have a fascinating culture known for body painting. Karo tribe members are known to paint their bodies with a combination of white chalk, yellow, mineral rock, iron ore, and charcoal. In addition, they often practice ritual scarification, choosing scars as an easy way to identify themselves. The scarification of the man’s chest indicates that he has killed enemies from other tribes; and he is highly respected within his community, according to Atlas of humanity. The Karo women are considered particularly sensual and attractive if cuts are made deep into their chests and torsos and ash is rubbed in; creating a raised effect over time and thereby enhancing sexual beauty. The Himba Tribe of Southern Africa Himba tribe, found in Northern Namibia—Kunene region, is basically made up of semi-nomadic pastoralists that comprise of approximately 20, 000 to 50, 000 aboriginals. They are famously known as the “Red People of Africa,” since they use red paste called otjize—a mixture of butter and red clay to paint themselves red. Also noted in their village is the holy fire (Okuruwo), which is continuously kept alive to represent the ancestors who help them mediate with their God, Mukuru. The Igbo Tribe of West Africa The Igbo people also known as Ndigbo, are found in southeastern part of Nigeria as well as some remote parts of west Africa. They are also recognized in Jamaica as the Red Eboes. The Igbo people are one of the most famous tribes in Africa and have many interesting customs and traditions. With a population of around 40 million throughout Nigeria, they are one of the biggest and most influential tribes. Igbos are well-known for their entrepreneurial endeavors, doggedness, well traveled nature and sadly the Biafran war; both within Nigeria and around the world. The Dogon Tribe of West Africa The Dogon people are a branch of the Niger-Congo language group, a tribe of anything between 400,000 and 800,000. They live in villages in good defensive locations on the Central Plateau of Mali and into Burkina Faso. They originally believed to have headed from the north of Africa to avoid Islamisation; because their lives revolve around their traditional religion though some are now Muslims and others, Christians. As one of the most famous tribes in Africa, the Dogon people are recognized globally for their art and their astronomical knowledge. The Dogon people survive by growing crops and keeping livestock. The Oromo Tribe Of East Africa The Oromo tribe is made up of people who inhabit the Southern part of Ethiopia, Northern Kenya and some parts of Somalia. It’s considered the largest ethnic group in Ethiopia, which accounts for about 35% of Ethiopia’s population. Basically, the Oromos speak the Oromo Language—which is considered a Cushitic version of the Afro-Asiatic lingo. The Kalenjin Tribe of East Africa If you’re a serious fan of athletics, then you definitely know a word or two about this African tribe from the Western Highlands of Kenya. Originally, Kalenjins were referred to as the “Nandi speaking tribe”; until the early 1950s when they officially adopted the name Kalenjin. Since then, the tribe has consistently been giving birth to elite Marathon runners; making it one of the most popular tribes worldwide as far as athletics is concerned. The Tuareg Tribe of Northern Africa The Tuaregs are a large tribe of Berber ethnicity occupying huge areas of the Sahara Desert. As nomadic pastoralists, they travel to seek food and water, making them one of the most famous tribes in Africa; As a result of their nomadic movements, they are found in the Mediterranean countries such as; Libya and Algeria, as well as countries in the region known as the Sahel; on the Sahara’s southern boundary, such as the country, Niger. The Ashanti Tribe of West Africa The Ashanti people live in central Ghana in the Rain forests of West Africa approximately 150 miles away from the coast. They are a major ethnic group of the Akans (Ashanti and Fanti) in Ghana, and are one of the most famous tribes in Africa. Much of the modern nation of Ghana was dominated from the late 17th through the late 19th century by a state known as Asante. Asante was the largest and most powerful of a series of states formed in the forest region of southern Ghana by people known as the Akan. Among the factors leading the Akan to form states, perhaps the most important was that they were rich in gold. The Ashanti are popular for Gold. It is now politically separated into four main parts. Ashanti is in the center and Kumasi is the capital. The Ashanti are the largest tribe in Ghana and one of the few matrilineal societies in West Africa. The area of Ashanti is 9400 square miles with a population of about one million. The Mbenga Tribe of West Central Africa The Mbenga people are known as the Pygmy Ethnic Group who are found in the West Congo Basin. There are a dozen different pygmy groups with the Mbenga one that speaks Bantu and Ubangian. They are hunter-gatherers largely dependent on what the forests can provide. They trade with neighbors for other things they need. Accurate numbers are difficult to ascertain but educated guesses suggest around half a million live in the Congo rainforest. The Mbenga people are part of the most famous tribes in Africa. The Hutu Tribe of East Africa The Hutu Tribe has a population of around 20-25 million people, settled primarily in two countries. Although the Hutu people are considered as a small tribe, they are one of the most famous tribes in Africa. In Rwanda and Burundi, around 85% of the people are Hutu and a combined 21 million Hutu live in these two countries. The origins of the Hutu lie in the great Bantu expansion which was when they emigrated to the Great Lakes Region in Africa around the first century. The Hutus speak Rwanda-Rundi which is a Bantu language they also share with the Tutsi and the Twa. The Hutu and the Tutsi tribes lived together in relative peace until the colonial invasion by Europeans which then soured the relations between the two tribes, leading eventually to the Rwandan genocide. The Hutus are famous for their pottery and craftsmanship; while music and dancing remain a key cultural component of the Hutu tribe. The Fula Tribe of West Africa The Fulani/fula/fulbe tribe are one of the largest ethnic groups and most famous tribes in Africa; with over 40 million people. They live mainly in Western African nations such as Nigeria, Mali, Guinea, Cameroon, Senegal and Chad. They have their own language known as Fula. Due to their Nomadic nature, their origins are unclear but there are many theories as to where they originated. The oral traditions of the Fulani states that they started from what is now present day Jordan. They are one of the few Africa tribes to adopt Islam, with 98% of the Fulani being Muslim. Prominent Fulani include the first President of Cameroon, Ahmadou Ahidjo, and Major General Mohammadu Buhari, the current President of Nigeria. The Amazigh Tribe of Northern Africa The Amazigh tribe consists of around 40 million people. Also called the Berbers, they are mostly found in Morocco and Algeria, but are also found in Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Mali, Mauritiana and Niger. Most Amazigh speak the Amazigh language, though they also speak Arabic. As one of the most famous tribes in Africa, they have inhabited the Maghreb region in North Western Africa for over 12,000 years now. There are cave paintings from around 10,000 BC which can be attributed to the Amazigh. Numidia was an ancient Amazigh Kingdom which was very prosperous at the height of its success. The Somali Tribe of East Africa The Somali Tribe have a population of around 20 million people and can be found majorly in the country of Somalia, and then Djibouti, Ethiopia and Kenya. The origins of the Somali tribe can be traced back to about 7,000 years ago. New archaeological and linguistic studies have confirmed the Somali tribe to be the indigenous people of the Horn of Africa. They have lived there for over 7,000 years. The majority of the people speak the Somali language which is a Cushitic language. There are around 12.5 million Somali speakers worldwide. The Chaga Tribe of East Africa Closing the list is the Chaga tribe from Tanzania. Traditionally, this tribe inhabit the Eastern slopes of Mount Meru and Mount Kilimanjaro; and are mainly concentrated around Moshi in Tanzania. In Tanzania, they are regarded as the first tribe to embrace Christianity during the colonial times; which in turn gave them a better access to advanced health care and education in Tanzania. It’s fun to visit these tribes in these countries and enjoy their culture and hospitality with their food. Many more Africa People & Tribes WODAABI TSONGA TRIBO BOTSWANA SHANGAAN SETSWANA NGUNI CAPE PEOPLE TSWANA BACK TO THE TOP OF THE PAGE BACK TO THE TOP OF THE PAGE

AIRPORTS & TRANSPORT IN SOUTH AFRICA Welcome to Johannesburg - OR Tambo International Airport Flight Information, Flight Routes, Airport Parking and Transport, Car Rental, Flights, Hotels, Facilities, Shopping, Dining, Premium Lounges, Airport Maps and more... About OR Tambo Airport Johannesburg OR Tambo International Airport is the busiest airport on the continent of Africa and is situated in the Kempton Park district of Johannesburg, 23 km north-west of the city centre and 46 km south of Pretoria city centre. Formerly, Jan Smuts Airport, it has been renamed in honour of the late and former ANC President, Oliver Reginald Tambo, who was more commonly referred to by the name of OR Tambo. Johannesburg OR Tambo International Airport is one of the few airports in the world with scheduled passenger direct flights between all 6 inhabited continents and also serves as a continental gateway to many sub-Saharan countries. Its formal aviation references are: IATA Airport Code - JNB and ICAO Airport Code - FAOR, and it is commonly abbreviated to by passengers by the acronym "ORTIA", the initialised version of OR Tambo International Airport. Airport Parking BOOK HERE Book parking in advance with our online booking facility. Includes parking layout plan, latest car parking tariffs and contacts. Book Flights Flight Search, price comparison and flight booking facility for all domestic and international flights from any airport or country. Airport Lounges NOW OPEN Premium lounges booking, locations, facilities and contact information for OR Tambo International Airport lounges. Hotel Search Hotel Search, price comparison and booking facility for all hotels in all countries with the biggest hotel search engine on the internet. Car Rental Car Rental search, price comparison and booking facility for car hire in all countries with the biggest car rental search engine. Airport Transfers NEW Airport Transfers booking. Taxis, shuttles, buses and the Airport Gautrain including contact information and links to timetables. Flight Arrivals Live flight arrivals for OR Tambo International Airport including flight delays, flight tracking and SMS flight status change updates. Flight Departures Live flight departures for OR Tambo International Airport including flight delays, flight tracking and SMS flight status change updates. Flight Routes Flight route maps, destinations information, airline contacts and flight schedules for all OR Tambo International Airport Flights. Shops & Services Full directory and location plans for all shops and services in the OR Tambo International Airport passenger terminals. Food & Drink Full directory and location plans for all food and drink outlets in the OR Tambo International Airport passenger terminals. Airport Hotels Featuring the 6 hotels within the OR Tambo International Airport precinct, including images, descriptions and hotel booking forms. Airport Weather Current weather conditions and 7 day, 3 hourly weather forecasts for OR Tambo International Airport, Cape Town Airport and King Shaka Airport. Airport Maps OR Tambo International Airport location and directions map and an airport precinct and car parking location layout map. Travel Insurance NEW Travel Insurance from ANY country to ANY country. Medical travel insurance and Trip insurance available. All ages and medical conditions. https://ortambo-airport.com/index.html Join Us in Supporting Responsible Tourism When you choose Visit South Africa, you’re helping us promote responsible tourism that uplifts local communities, preserves the environment, and creates a brighter future for all. Start planning your sustainable South African adventure today. An international airport is an airport with customs and border control facilities enabling passengers to travel between countries. Find below are the list of International Airports In South Africa O.R. Tambo International Airport Lanseria International Airport Pilanesberg International Airport ACSA – O.R. Tambo Int. King Shaka International Airport Bram Fischer International Airport Grand Central Airport Polokwane International Airport Wonderboom National Airport Cape Town International Airport Upington International Airport Port Elizabeth International Airport Klipriver Airfield O.R. Tambo International Airport Kruger Mpumalanga International Airport Rand Airport Mmabatho International Airport Cape Town International Airport George Airport Vereeniging Airport How many international airports are there in South Africa? There are 23 airports in South Africa. What is the main airport in South Africa? Tambo International Airport O.R. Tambo International Airport (ORTIA) is South Africa’s primary airport for international and domestic travel. Which country has the biggest airport in Africa? South Africa 2018 statistics How many International are in South Africa? Airports are never fun places, however, South Africa boasts three world-class international airports in the three biggest cities (Johannesburg, Cape Town and Durban) which are up there with many other more first-world destinations. Which country is the nearest to South Africa? Land. South Africa is bordered by Namibia to the northwest, by Botswana and Zimbabwe to the north, and by Mozambique and Swaziland to the northeast and east. Lesotho, an independent country, is an enclave in the eastern part of the republic, entirely surrounded by South African territory. Transportation in South Africa: trains, buses, and taxis Looking to ditch your car but don’t feel like braving a minibus taxi? Public transportation in South Africa is improving all the time, with more bus and train options going into service with each passing year. Not every commute is easy to make by public transportation in South Africa, but it’s certainly possible in many urban areas. Whether you’re taking the train in Gauteng or the bus in Cape Town , there are plenty of options to get where you’re going safely and efficiently. Here’s a few key topics to start your trip, such as: Public transportation in South Africa Public transportation apps in South Africa Trains in South Africa Train tickets and costs in South Africa International trains in South Africa Buses in South Africa Taxis and ride-sharing services in South Africa Long-distance coaches in South Africa Airports in South Africa O.R. Tambo International Airport Cape Town International Airport King Shaka International Airport Kruger Mpumalanga International Airport How disability-accessible is public transportation in South Africa? How environmentally friendly is public transportation in South Africa? How safe is public transportation in South Africa? Safety tips when using public transportation in South Africa Making a public transportation complaint in South Africa Useful resources Public transportation in South Africa For many locals, driving in South Africa is the only realistic option for the daily commute. Although it’s touted as the safe option, it isn’t necessarily the safest choice for getting around. South Africa has long had one of the highest carjacking rates in the world , a trend that shows no signs of slowing down . What’s the alternative, then? South Africa’s Department of Transport oversees most transportation methods in the country, from trains to taxis. As a matter of fact, South Africa boasts Africa’s busiest railway network. Many cities are rolling out bus rapid transit routes to improve travel times and safety levels (and for those that don’t mind a reckless bus driver, minibus taxis are also everywhere). Metered taxis and ride-hailing apps are also popular options in urban areas, particularly after sunset. Public transportation apps in South Africa Unfortunately, official websites and apps for many of the public transportation options in South Africa are limited, outdated, or even nonexistent. In addition, some official apps are poorly built and have low ratings. There are a few of the alternative options for planning your next trip or daily commute, including the following: Living in Ekurhuleni, Johannesburg , or Pretoria? GauRider is a simple, Gauteng-focussed app for looking up departure times, planning itineraries, as well as tracking the credit on your Gautrain Card. The app works both for Gautrain’s commuter rail network as well as their bus routes. Moving Gauteng also provides route information, departure boards, and itinerary planners for a variety of public transportation services throughout Gauteng, including A Re Yeng, Gautrain, Harambee, Metrobus, Metrorail, Rea Vaya, and Tshwane Bus Services. Taking the bus in Cape Town? MyCiTi , Cape Town’s local bus company, has a mobile app for planning routes, calculating bus fares, and topping up the balance on your myconnect Card. The MyCiTi app is available for Android as well as iOS. Trains in South Africa South Africa is home to 20,964 kilometers of railway tracks that carry 530 million passengers per year, the largest and busiest network in Africa. Most rail passengers in South Africa travel on one of the five commuter rail networks. A Metrorail Western Cape train in Glencairn The Passenger Rail Agency of South Africa (PRASA) owns and operates almost all passenger rail services in the country. PRASA itself has three divisions for rail services in South Africa: Metrorail : commuter rail services Shosholoza Meyl : intercity services connecting every province in South Africa Premier Classe: affordable luxury train running between Cape Town, Johannesburg, and Durban PRASA also owns and operates train stations in South Africa through its own property management arm, PRASA Cres . The four Metrorail networks are commuter rail, connecting suburban areas with urban centers. Metrorail’s networks are: Eastern Cape (iMpuma-Koloni in Xhosa): two separate lines. One connects Gqeberha (formerly Port Elizabeth) with Uitenhage and the other connects East London with Berlin. Gauteng (eGoli in Zulu): large network connecting cities throughout Gauteng, including Germiston, Johannesburg, Pretoria, Sebokeng, Soweto, and Springs. KwaZulu-Natal (iKwaZulu-Natali in Zulu): seven-line network connecting Cato Ridge, Durban, Kelso, kwaMashu, Pinetown, Stanger, and Umlazi. Western Cape (Wes-Kaap in Afrikaans): four lines centered on Cape Town. Destinations include Bellville, Malmesbury, Paarl, Simon’s Town, Stellenbosch, and Wellington. Gauteng is also home to one private commuter rail service. The Gautrain has three lines connecting Ekurhuleni, Johannesburg, and Pretoria, as well as Johannesburg’s O. R. Tambo International Airport. Long-distance intercity services are run by Shosholoza Meyl. In general, most routes radiate from Johannesburg. Major destinations for Shosholoza Meyl trains include Cape Town, Durban, East London, Komatipoort, Musina, and Gqeberha. South Africa is also home to one luxury route between Cape Town and Pretoria: The Blue Train . Train tickets and costs in South Africa Fares for train journeys are set by the operator. For commuter rail, fares are generally based upon the distance traveled. Expect the following ticket prices for normal second-class travel on Gautrain : Single (off-peak hours): R24–206 Single (peak hours): R30–206 Weekly: R278–814 Monthly: R1,122–2,880 Metrorail publishes their fares for all networks and lines on their website . However, they’re notorious for not publishing any service information online for years at a time. If you rely on Metrorail for your daily commute, consult a more reliable source of information such as Moving Gauteng or Cape Town Train Times . There are also first-class carriages available on Metrorail trains, referred to as MetroPlus. However, as with Metrorail, Shosholoza Meyl rarely updates their website, which is often not online. Try contacting Shosholoza Meyl directly through their website or, better yet, by calling their reservations office directly at 086000 8888. International trains in South Africa There are currently no scheduled international train services linking South Africa with any of its neighbors. Travel between South Africa and a neighboring country is only possible by road (either by car or bus) or by air. Freight rail links exist between South Africa and Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, Swaziland, and Zimbabwe (as well as Mozambique in the near future); however, there is no indication that these will expand for passenger rail services any time soon. Buses in South Africa There is no one singular entity providing bus service across South African cities ; each municipality generally has its own bus company or companies, depending on the size of the city. Many of South Africa’s bus companies are municipally-run, while others are private. Buses at Gandhi Square in Johannesburg Some of the companies offering public transportation by bus in South Africa include the following: Bloemfontein: Interstate Bus Lines Cape Town: Golden Arrow Bus Services , MyCiTi (bus rapid transit routes) Durban: Aqualine, Durban People Mover , Mynah. Bus companies in Durban use a unified fare card known as Muvo ; Muvo also provides information on bus fares and timetables . George Municipality (George Munisipaliteit): Go George Gqeberha: Algoa Bus Johannesburg: Metrobus, Rea Vaya (bus rapid transit routes) Polokwane: Leeto la Polokwane Pretoria: A Re Yeng , PUTCO , Tshwane Bus Services South African cities also have another kind of bus: the minibus taxi. The South African minibus taxi shares many features of the Russian marshrutka , in fact; the vehicles (generally a Toyota Quantum ) are often subpar, drivers often drive aggressively, and payment is cash only. Still, minibus taxis are, by far, the most used form of public transportation in South Africa. They’re not easy to flag down if you’ve never used one before, but there are some hand signals that can help. Minibus taxis are widespread in every South African city, including here in Pretoria What minibus taxis lack in roadworthiness they make up for with cost (many fares are under R20 ), route diversity (Cape Town alone has well over 600 routes ), frequency (you won’t wait for longer than a couple of minutes), and speed (drivers aren’t shy). Taxis and ride-sharing services in South Africa Taxicabs are reasonably available in South Africa, although it’s uncommon to simply flag one down on the street. Taxi stands are the easiest places to get a taxi in a South African city; these are generally found next to major transportation hubs, hotels, central business districts, and shopping malls. However, if you’re not near any of these kinds of places, your best bet is to call a taxicab company directly to reserve a ride. Reputable taxi companies generally use sedans with meters in them. Avoid getting in a non-metered taxi if at all possible; if it isn’t, make sure that you negotiate the price to your destination before you enter the vehicle. A taxi in Cape Town South Africa has a wide selection of ride-hailing apps available, allowing users to hail either a taxi or another professional driver. Some of the most widely used ride-hailing apps in South Africa include the following: Bolt: services available in dozens of South African cities . inDrive: available in multiple cities in South Africa . Orange Cabs: available in Gauteng . Taxi Live Africa: available across South Africa (Android app). Uber: multiple classes of service available all over the country . Yookoo Ride: available across South Africa . Long-distance coaches in South Africa Considering the limited number of train routes in South Africa, long-distance coaches remain one of the best options for crossing the country; they’re also the ideal choice if you’re travelling to a smaller municipality. Some of the more well-known long-distance bus companies in South Africa include the following: Citiliner Citybug City to City Greyhound Intercape Mainliner TransLux Some of these companies also offer direct routes to cities in Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and Namibia. Make sure you have your passport and other travel documents with you for these journeys. Airports in South Africa South Africa is a large country with fairly lengthy intercity travel times by road or rail. For example, traveling from Cape Town to Johannesburg takes 18 hours by bus, 30 hours by train, or just two hours by air. As a result, domestic air travel remains a reliable transportation option for getting around South Africa. The country’s flag carrier is South African Airways ; other major airlines include Airlink , FlySafair , and kulula.com . O. R. Tambo International Airport in Johannesburg is the only airport in Africa with flights to all six continents O.R. Tambo International Airport O.R. Tambo International Airport is located in Kempton Park, about 21 kilometers from Johannesburg. The airport’s name honors Oliver Reginald Kaizana Tambo, a South African anti-apartheid politician. As South Africa’s largest airport (and Africa’s second largest after Cairo in Egypt ), it handles more than 50% of the country’s air passengers. In fact, about 21 million travelers pass through the airport each year. O.R. Tambo International is a hub for several South African airlines, with direct flights to destinations on every inhabited continent. Facilities at the airport include duty-free shopping, banks, currency exchanges, pharmacies, food, and drink. There are several ways to get to O.R. Tambo International – you can drive and book parking in advance or take a taxi. Otherwise, the Gautrain offers a service between Sandton and the airport. Cape Town International Airport The next busiest South African airport is Cape Town International , which sees about 10 million passengers per year. As it’s still a lot quicker to fly to Johannesburg from Cape Town than to travel by public transport, this route is one of the world’s busiest . Other destinations include cities in the rest of Africa, Asia, and Europe. The airport itself has plenty of facilities, such as restaurants, shops, and business lounges. The easiest way to get there is by car, taxi, or shuttle. Currently, the only public transit option is the A01 Line on the MyCiti bus. You’ll need a Myconnect card , which costs R35. King Shaka International Airport King Shaka International Airport serves Durban. The airport is located about 35km away from Durban, in La Mercy and opened relatively recently – in time for the 2010 FIFA World Cup. Most of its destinations are elsewhere in Southern Africa and the Middle East. While there are no public transport options to reach the airport, there are several shuttle buses , taxi services, and car rentals available. The airport also has a handy parking calculator tool to work out your costs. Kruger Mpumalanga International Airport Kruger Mpumalanga International Airport is 27km northeast of Mbombela, linking the Kruger National Park to global destinations. It offers flights to South African cities, some neighboring countries, Zambia, and Frankfurt (Germany). According to its website, the terminal building is the largest thatch constructed airport in the world. To reach the airport, you’ll need to drive, rent a car, or book a shuttle. Other airports in South Africa include: Bram Fischer International Airport (Bloemfontein) King Phalo Airport (East London) Chief Dawid Stuurman International Airport (Gqeberha) Wonderboom Airport (Pretoria) How disability-accessible is public transportation in South Africa? Considering the uneven development of transit-related infrastructure in South Africa , the availability of disability-accessible public transportation varies across the country. Highly-regulated and well-funded systems such as George’s Go George bus network or the Gautrain in Gauteng are fully accessible to those traveling in a wheelchair; Cape Town’s municipal government also has a 24-hour call center for service information. On the other hand, it’s highly unlikely that a minibus taxi will accommodate passengers with disabilities. A number of public bus companies in South Africa offer disability-accessible transport, sometimes bolstered by government funding. These include the following: Cape Town: MyCiTi’s Dial-a-Ride Durban: Dial-a-Ride Johannesburg: Metrobus , Rea Vaya Pretoria: A Re Yeng , Tshwane Bus Services Trains and train stations in South Africa are generally accessible to those with limited mobility, although this is not uniformly the case. Gautrain is a leader in transport accessibility in South Africa: all train stations are fully accessible and at least half of their bus fleet is, too. Many private companies offer accessible transportation as alternatives to the regular public offerings. These include the following: Charly’s Care Pro Mobility QuadPara Association of South Africa (QASA) Travel with Renè Some taxi companies and ride-hailing apps also provide accessible services such as uberASSIST (available in Cape Town and Johannesburg). How environmentally friendly is public transportation in South Africa? Some municipalities in South Africa have started rolling out low-emission or emission-free buses, including Cape Town , Limpopo , and Tshwane . However, obstacles remain when it comes to implementing a more environmentally-friendly transportation network; South African cities are plagued by poor urban planning and street design , with an insufficient amount of charging stations Even still, public transportation is widely used in South Africa. Johannesburg’s modal share of private car use is 33%, comparable to other cities more well-known for their sustainable initiatives such as Berlin (30% ) and Singapore (29% ). How safe is public transportation in South Africa? Safety levels on public transportation in South Africa tend to vary depending on how you’re traveling and who you’re asking for advice. Despite apocalyptic claims that a South African train journey is akin to begging to be robbed at gunpoint, millions of people experience a completely uneventful commute by train every single day. Although many minibus taxis (such as this one in Johannesburg) are perfectly roadworthy, many are not Of course, this is not to say that train travel in South Africa is perfectly safe; it’s not. Research suggests that even if train stations or bus stops are designed with public safety in mind, surrounding sidewalks or pathways in South African cities often lack proper lighting or paving and make female commuters feel less safe as a result. Robberies and infrastructure theft also remain problematic , especially on South Africa’s Metrorail networks. Moving The five safest cities in South Africa Read more Minibus taxis have safety concerns of their own. While robberies are less likely, pickpocketing is not uncommon. Government regulation of minibus taxis remains limited ; as a result, there is little control over poor driving as well as vehicle maintenance, so accidents are commonplace. If you’re in a minibus taxi driving erratically, ask to get out of the bus and take the next one. Safety tips when using public transportation in South Africa There are measures you can take to at least mitigate some of the risks when you’re traveling by train or minibus taxi in South Africa, such as: Keep valuables and large amounts of cash out of sight or at home. Don’t give a potential thief a reason to approach you if you can avoid it. Avoid sitting in a train carriage that is empty or nearly empty. Robberies and assaults are less likely to occur with a carriage full of passengers. Consider including a ride with a taxicab or ride-sharing app as part of your journey, such as between the train station and your final destination. Try to travel with someone else or in a group. If this isn’t possible, let someone know when you’re planning to depart and arrive. If you’re meeting someone, try to get them to meet you at your bus stop or train station. Bring along a local you know and trust if you’re trying out a public transportation route for the first time. A local perspective can ensure that you know exactly where you’re going the next time as well as suggest any concerns or risks they see. Making a public transportation complaint in South Africa Contacting a public transportation provider with a concern or complaint is, to put it mildly, difficult. Many of the government-owned public transportation services in South Africa have outdated websites that are often offline. However, you can try Gautrain’s contact form or call 0800 428 87246 in case of a complaint. For bus-related complaints, contact the bus company or municipality directly for further assistance. Useful resources A Re Yeng – bus company in Pretoria Algoa Bus – bus company in Gqeberha Department of Transport – the government department that oversees public transportation in South Africa Durban People Mover – bus company in Durban GauRider – Gautrain and bus schedule app for Gauteng Gautrain – privately-run commuter rail network in Gauteng Go George – bus company in George Golden Arrow Bus Services – bus company in Cape Town Leeto la Polokwane – bus company in Polokwane Metrobus – bus company in Johannesburg Metrorail – multiple commuter rail networks in South Africa Moving Gauteng – comprehensive information for public transportation throughout Gauteng Muvo – unified public transportation fare card in Durban MyCiTi – bus rapid transit in Cape Town PUTCO – bus company in Pretoria Rea Vaya – bus rapid transit in Johannesburg Shosholoza Meyl – intercity trains in South Africa Tshwane Bus Services – bus company in Tshwane, including Pretoria BACK TO THE TOP OF THE PAGE

SOUTH AFRICAN GHOST STORIES -South Africa’s favourite ghost stories explained While the tradition of Halloween dates back hundreds of years and has its roots in Celtic, Gaelic and Pagan festivities, most nations celebrate 31 October by indulging in everything spooky and macabre. Halloween is upon us once again, and although South African’s aren’t known for celebratory trick or treating, the country sure does have some interesting ghost stories of its own. South Africa is a complex land of mystery and wonder, an amalgamation of the beautifully bizarre as a result of a complex, and often unpleasant, history. It’s this combination of folklore and fear that mixes well in the cauldron of morbid fascination. While the tradition of Halloween dates back hundreds of years and has its roots in Celtic, Gaelic and Pagan festivities, most nations celebrate 31 October by indulging in everything spooky and macabre. Thanks to American influence, people don Halloween costumes , usually meant to depict ghouls, frightening apparitions or deceased celebrities. Pumpkins are carved into jack-o’-lanterns and kids take to the streets asking neighbours for treats. It’s a time for innocuous mischievousness, which usually, for young-adults anyway, turns into a dress-up drinking party, after which most revellers experience true horror in the form of a brain-drilling hangover. But, while these spooky shenanigans form the backdrop for Halloween festivities, South Africans can afford to cite a host of ghastly ghost stories which supersede the superficial celebratory screams. Let’s take a look at South Africa’s scariest ghost stories; myths and legends that have been passed down through the ages. Uniondale’s lost lover, looking for a ride Uniondale’s lost lover, looking for a ride Stretch of road from Willowmore to Uniondale / Photo via Wikimedia Commons Let’s start with South Africa’s favourite ghost story first – the ghost of Maria Roux, Uniondale’s infamous hitching bride-to-be. According to urban legend, Marie Charlotte Roux had recently become engaged to Giel Oberholzer in 1968. Over the Easter Weekend of that year, the loving couple embarked on what was to become a hellride on the outskirts of Uniondale in the Karoo. Roux was asleep on the backseat of Oberholzer’s Volkswagen Beetle when her fiancé lost control of the vehicle in stormy weather. The car rolled on the Barandas-Willowmore road, roughly 20 kilometres from the Uniondale, killing Roux. Yet, according to some motorists, Roux can still be seen waiting on the side of the road, ostensibly, for the return of her fiancé or a lift to her final destination. According to several reports, motorists driving along the desolate stretch of road at night come across a woman hitchhiking. This woman, who apparently fits the description of Roux, asks for a lift, and most motorists oblige. However, a few kilometres down the road, Roux vanishes. Some shook motorists have described the woman’s laughter and a sudden cold chill in the air. Nottingham Road’s lady of the night Nottingham Road has the oldest pub in the KwaZulu-Natal Midlands and, according to some patrons, a beautiful ghost called Charlotte. The myth revolves around the Nottingham Road Hotel, a 19th-century prostitute who plied her trade at the establishment and a handsome British soldier. It’s a love affair which was doomed from the beginning. Charlotte, a prostitute at the Nottingham Road Hotel, fell in love with a British soldier sometime in the late 1800s. There are two urban legends which detail Charlotte’s untimely demise. In the first account, Charlotte finds out that the soldier, with whom she is madly in love with, has recently been killed in battle. Overcome with sorrow, Charlotte flings herself off the balcony’s hotel, dying of her injuries. The second account states that Charlotte was killed by a defaulting customer who turned violent and threw her off of the balcony. Either way, patrons and paranormal investigators firmly believe that Charlotte still walks the halls of the Nottingham Road Hotel as a lonely apparition. She’s apparently most fond of room number 10. Apparently, Charlotte speaks to children who stay at the hotel with their families. She also has a penchant for mischievous behaviour and enjoys unpacking bags, fiddling with light switches and turning on the water taps. International paranormal investigators, Ghost Hunters filmed their Nottingham Road Hotel adventures in 2007. The crew believe that Charlotte is a lost spirit trapped within the establishment and that she may even be joined by a ghostly pal. The Flying Dutchman Ghost Ship at Cape Point The Flying Dutchman by Charles Temple / Image via Wikimedia Commons The Flying Dutchman, known in Dutch as De Vliegende Hollander, is a legendary ghost ship which is said to have been commandeered by the Dutch East India Company (VOC) in the 17th century. Over the last 200 years, many sailors have sworn to have seen The Flying Dutchmen, complete with period-appropriate crew and captain, sailing the world’s stormy seas. Legend has it that the ship sank off the coast of the Cape of Good Hope near Cape Point. According to eyewitnesses, the ghostly ship appears on stormy nights, when the well is rough and gale force winds prevail. It’s been said that the ghostly crew of The Flying Dutchmen attempt to reach worldly onlookers by way of rowboats. Urban legend claims that Dutch captain Bernard Fokke commandeered the ship around the Cape of Good Hope, but refused to turn around when The Flying Dutchmen encountered a monstrous storm. The stubborn captain swore he would pass Cape Point even if it “should take until the day of judgment.” Ghosts of the Lord Milner Hotel in Matjiesfontein the Lord Milner Hotel in Matjiesfontein / Image via Flickr: flowcomm According to some, Matjiesfontein is the most haunted town in South Africa. This tiny Karoo town is said to be home to a number of embattled apparitions, two of whom have found shelter in the Lord Milner Hotel. Meet ghost number one, Lucy. Lucy is, by all accounts, a timid ghost who has never checked out of her hotel room on the first floor. Patrons who have encountered the spirit say she is not at all frightening, although quarrels can be heard coming from her room late at night. Naturally, when visitors enter the room to investigate the source of the disturbances, nothing and no one can be found. Lucy is joined at the Lord Milner Hotel by Kate, the ghost of a 19-year-old nurse who enjoyed playing cards with British soldiers garrisoned in the old turret room. Nobody knows how Kate died, but patrons and hotel staff have reported strange happenings in and below the old turret room. According to eyewitnesses, Kate is a restless soul who makes her presence known in strange ways; brushing against people’s shoulders, shuffling cards in the old recreation room and walking the narrow hallways in her old nurse uniform. The haunting of Kempton Park Hospital Kempton Park Hospital / Image via Martijn Smeets Facebook Johannesburg is scary enough without ghosts, but for intrepid urban explorers, the abandoned Kempton Park Hospital has all the makings of a horror movie. The hospital abruptly closed down the day after Christmas in 1996. Nobody knows why, which has only added fuel to the frightening fire. Medical files, equipment and specimen jars were all left in place. Over the years, much of that has been destroyed or expropriated by local teenagers and the city’s homeless, yet, remnants of the hospital’s dubious past still remain. A group of local ghost hunters documented their exploration of the abandoned hospital, which oozes eeriness. According to some, the hospital’s psychiatric wing is the haunted hotspot, with some explorers experiencing strange occurrences, including ear piercing screams and dancing shadows. The Kempton Park Hospital is due to be demolished soon, so if you feel brave enough, explore it while it lasts. Disclaimer: Don’t enter Johannesburg’s abandoned buildings; the dangers exceed the supernatural. The ghosts of South Africa The ghosts of South Africa are a colourful, dramatic and varied lot. You'll find killers, victims, poltergeists, spooky drivers, battlefield wraiths and road-death spirits. Each one gives you a little insight into South Africa's story. But most of all, they provide for cracking good entertainment – a South African ghost story is always worth telling. So, when you ask the folk at the Swartberg Hotel in Prince Albert about their ghosts, they'll tell you about flying vases, characters moving about in old paintings and the shenanigans of a late-night poltergeist in the corridors. Ghosts, you see, are good for business. Many years ago, a man murdered his wife in a riverbed near Beaufort West. Since then, people have seen a fast-moving light running up and down the river. They say it's the angry spirit of the dead woman. One driver who drove towards it, the story goes, ended up in a lunatic asylum. The most famous country spook is the Uniondale hitchhiker. On a stormy night in 1968, an Air Force officer and his fiancée crashed in their Volkswagen Beetle just outside the town in the Kamanassie Mountains. He was badly hurt, she died instantly. Since then, people travelling the area on rainy nights have picked up a woman hitchhiker – who then simply disappears into the darkness again. Then there are the offshore ghosts, in the form of the captain and crew of The Flying Dutchman, cursed to a futile attempt to round the Cape of Good Hope for eternity. Let the haunting begin... The Castle of Good Hope, Cape Town The Castle of Good Hope is one of the oldest colonial buildings in South Africa, and is said to be home to several unexplained phenomena, such as ghostly footsteps, flickering lights, and specters that appear; one of which is reputed to be the castle’s first official hostess, Lady Anne Barnard. The ghosts of The Castle of Good Hope If you’re curious about South African legends and stories about ghosts, this paranormal one’s for you. The Castle of Good Hope is a 17th-century fortress in Cape Town, South Africa. Locals commonly refer to it as the Cape Town Castle, or simply, the Castle. The Castle is open for tours, and experienced guides regularly take visitors through the historic passageways. It sits near many other popular attractions in Cape Town ’s vibrant central business district. So what’s the gripping story behind this landmark? Many believe that relentless, previously tortured spirits haunt the space, as the Castle was once a site of horrid punishments. One of the most famous ghosts is the Lady in Grey, a sad-faced woman who wanders around the Castle at night. Some claim that you can hear ghosts walking around. So they prefer to walk outside the Castle to avoid seeing the source of those footsteps. Are you brave enough to explore the Castle and unravel the mystery? Klerksdorp Spheres, Klerksdorp The 100’s of strange, almost-spherical objects discovered in Klerksdorp have been viewed by thousands of visitors who believe them to be of alien origin. Science has solved this mystery, stating the spheres are geofacts that naturally occur – but we leave it to you to make up your own mind. Sterkfontein Caves, Cradle of Humankind With bones and fossils dating back 4 million years, it’s safe to say the Sterkfontein Caves are definitely a contender in having some of the oldest relics of man ever to be found. And this leaves us wondering: who were these ancient hominids? Mysterious Mermaid, Meiringspoort, Karoo Stories of a beautiful dark-haired, blue-eyed mermaid living in the Karoo have been circulating for the last few centuries, and myth would have you believe she lives in the bottomless pool below Skelm waterfall (or the Eseljagtspoort or Meiringspoort, depending who you talk to) Ponte Tower, Johannesburg This 54-story cylindrical tower was once a luxurious high-rise that fell into disrepair. It now stands as a crumbling legacy from the apartheid era. After being a base for several notorious gangs, it was abandoned and has since had an eerie number of suicides occur, and several ghosts spotted. Uniondale Hitchiker, Uniondale Just outside of Uniondale is the hitchhiking ghost of Maria Roux who reportedly died in her sleep on Easter Sunday after her fiancé crashed the car. She is said to have dark hair and stands waiting for passing cars to grant her passage, only to disappear a few km’s into the journey, leaving the scent of apple blossoms in her wake. South Africa, a land steeped in history and cultural diversity, is also a treasure trove of spine-chilling South African ghost stories. One such tale that has stood the test of time is the story of the Flying Dutchman, or as it is known in its native tongue, Der Fliegende Hollander. This South Africa horror story harks back to 1641 when a Dutch trade ship, brimming with Far Eastern treasures, was claimed by the stormy seas off the Cape of Good Hope. As the legend goes, any unfortunate mariner who lays eyes on the spectral Flying Dutchman is destined for a gruesome end. This phantom ship has been sighted throughout the annals of history, from the Royal Navy crew in the late 1800s to a German submarine in World War II, and even by modern-day tourists who claim to have seen its ragged sails. But are these sightings genuine, or just tricks of the light? The charming town of Matjiesfontein in the Western Cape is another locale famous for its South African prison ghost stories. The Lord Milner Hotel declared a national monument in 1970, is reputedly haunted by several apparitions. The most renowned is Kate, a young nurse from the Boer War who mysteriously passed away. It is said that her spirit can be seen peering out from the hotel's top turrets, and the sound of cards being shuffled can be heard from a small room on the second floor, now known as "Kate's Card Room". Other spectral inhabitants of the Lord Milner Hotel include the town's founder, James Logan, and Lucy, a heartbroken spirit who roams the first-floor hallways, mourning a lost love. Another South African ghost story that sends shivers down the spine is set in the Nottingham Road Hotel. The tale tells of a prostitute named Charlotte who fell in love with a British soldier. The details of their ill-fated romance remain shrouded in mystery, but it ended tragically when Charlotte fell (or jumped) to her death from room 10. Her restless spirit is said to still haunt the room, rearranging mirrors and flowers, and startling the room's present-day occupants. The chilling tale of the first-flooris another piece of South African folklore. On Easter weekend in 1968, a couple met a tragic end in a car accident. The woman, who was asleep in the back seat, is now said to haunt the roads around the town, hitching rides on rainy nights with unsuspecting drivers, only to vanish from their vehicles with a bone-chilling laugh. In Cape Town , the Castle of Good Hope, the oldest building in South Africa, is reputed to be teeming with spirits. The ghost of Lady Anne Barnard is often seen in the ballroom, while the malevolent governor Pieter Gysbert van Noodt, a terrifying black hound, and the souls of those who were imprisoned and tortured in the Donker Gat (dark hole), a windowless dungeon that often flooded during high tide, are also said to haunt the castle. For those brave enough to explore these haunted sites, the Mystery Ghost Bus Tour offers regular trips around the most haunted landmarks and historical sites in the country, including Johannesburg, Pretoria, Cape Town, and Grahamstown during the annual National Arts Festival. These tales, whether you believe in ghosts or not, offer a fascinating glimpse into South Africa's past, and add an extra layer of intrigue to these already captivating locations. Kolmanskop, Namibia Though technically not in South Africa, the abandoned town of Kolmanskop in Namibia is well worth a visit if you’re hoping to experience the eerie desolation of dust-filled, sand-blasted buildings that, by all accounts, truly is a ghost town. South African myths and legends – South African mythology Are you looking to embark on a journey through the intriguing world of South African myths and legends? If so, you’re in the right place. Exploring South African mythology reveals fascinating tales passed down through generations. South Africa is a country rich in history and culture, containing some of the world’s oldest archaeological sites. It has accumulated a series of myths and legends over the years to reflect the country’s personality. Due to the number of influences in the region, there are an endless variety of stories, from Zulu mythology to the San religion. Take a look at some of South Africa’s most well-known myths and legends. Fascinating South African Myths and Legends Steeped in tradition and symbolism, South African legends and myths allow you to discover mysteries, magic, and wonders in this land. So let’s dive into the enchanting realm! Captain Van Hunks Legend has it that the 18th-century sea captain, Jan Van Hunks, decided to retire and live on Table Mountain with his wife. Every day Van Hunks would climb to the top of the mountain to smoke his pipe and admire the beautiful views.One day, Van Hunks climbed to his usual smoking spot and was surprised to see a strange man already sitting there, smoking a pipe. The stranger challenged Van Hunks to a smoking contest, which he gladly agreed to. Van Hunks was victorious in the competition, much to the stranger’s dismay – and who else should this stranger turn out to be than the devil? Angry for losing, the devil vanished, taking Van Hunks along with him. Today there is a thick cloud that hangs above Table Mountain, which is said to be left over from Van Hunk’s and the devil’s smoking contest. Two roads overcame the hyena One day, a hungry hyena came across a fork in the road with two separate paths, each leading to two goats caught in the thickets. Unable to choose a path, the hyena decided it would tread the left path with its left legs and walk along the right path with its right legs. However, as the paths grew further away from each other, the hyena was eventually split in half. “Two roads overcame the hyena” is a well-known African proverb meant to encourage people to choose a path and commit to it – otherwise, they will be stretched too thin, like the poor hyena! Ga-Gorib The myth of Ga-Gorib originates from the San people , indigenous hunter-gatherers of southern Africa. The Ga-Gorib is a beast that attempts to lure people into its pit by tricking them into throwing rocks at it. However, the stones always bounce back from the creature’s hide, and the caster falls into the pit. When Heitsi-eibib – the hero of the story – meets the beast, he refuses to throw a stone and instead waits until Ga-Gorib’s back is turned. When Ga-Gorib isn’t looking, Heitsi-eibib casts his rock, sending the beast tumbling into its own pit. In another version of the story Ga-Gorib repeatedly tries to throw Heitsi-eibib into the pit, but he always manages to escape. Heitsi-eibib ends up throwing Ga-Gorib into the pit, as in the other versions of the story. Ga-Gorib means “the spotted one”, which could refer to a leopard or cheetah, known for their cunningness in other legendary tales. The Hole in the Wall The Hole in the Wall is a legendary wonder that’s sure to capture your mind. It tells the story of a giant cliff with a mysterious opening through its center. You can find this rock formation off the Wild Coast of the Eastern Cape in South Africa. It is a symbol for Xhosa people, who refer to it as “izi Khaleni” or “place of thunder ”. They also believe that it is the gateway to the world of their ancestors. Wondering what’s the story behind the Hole in the Wall? Many theories exist relating to the creation of this near-perfect opening. On the one hand, scientists believe that it resulted from the cliff’s location and exposure to breaking waves for millions of years. According to the legend, a young woman who lived in a small village fell in love with a sea person. She often sat by the water, and he admired her from afar. Until one day, he surfaced and confessed his love. The girl’s father and the village people disapproved of their relationship. However, the sea people took it upon themselves to help the young couple. One night, they gathered on the ocean side of the cliff face and repeatedly knocked the rock with a large fish until it broke. Some believe that the young girl took the opportunity to escape with her lover. According to the Xhosa folklore, the sound of the crashing waves against the Hole in the Wall is a call of the sea people in search of a bride. The legend of the Tokoloshe The Tokoloshe is a legendary creature from Zulu mythology, famous for its mischievous and evil spirit. People describe them differently, but the general image is that they are small, hairy, impish creatures. Some fear Tokoloshe, while others respect them. Many believe that they have supernatural powers and can shape-shift. They are present in tales of tricks, from stealing belongings to creeping into someone’s bed and causing nightmares. Some stories are more extreme, with mentions of choking people to death. Malicious people call upon Tokoloshe to cause havoc; some even believe it can bring good fortune. Whether you’re a believer or skeptical, this captivating figure leaves a lasting impression on South African culture. Tip: If this legend has put you in the mood to watch a movie, there is a South African horror film titled “The Tokolo she ”. The Grootslang Grootslang, which translates to “big snake” in English, is a mythical monster that lives in a cave in Richtersveld, South Africa . As the tale goes, Grootslang is a massive serpent-like creature, similar to an elephant and a snake. There are different depictions regarding which body part resembles each animal. Some say it has an elephant’s head and a snake’s body and tail. It has traits that resemble that of both animals, including intelligence, strength, and the ability to mesmerize others. The legend also mentions that Grootslang loves precious gems and guards hidden treasure within the cave. creepy Cape Town ghost stories Cape Town’s beginnings rest on an intricate history of violence and struggle, which some believe to be the catalyst for restless souls tormenting the land (and the people in it) for generations to come. These nine spots are centuries old and according to a few spine-chilling accounts, are hotbeds for paranormal activity, proving that some citizens of the Cape just never want to leave, even long after they’ve been gone… Groote Schuur Hospital Tucked away in the shadows of Devil’s Peak, the large 20th century building that is Groote Schuur Hospital gives off an eerie feeling even when cruising past it on the highway. While spooky occurrences are not uncommon at a hospital, Groote Schuur is plagued by a couple of restless souls who wonder about it’s hallways. Patients have tales of being tended to by nurses that no one has ever heard of, while a sister who’s been described as having ‘white eyes’ and who apparently committed suicide has also been sighted on numerous occasions. There is also the friendly Sister Fatima who reportedly tries to help hospital staff on their rounds by giving drinks to patients from trolley’s that are standing unattended, and the troubled soul of a patient who fell to his death while trying to escape is still stuck in limbo. Tokai Manor House Built in 1795, Tokai Manor House is a National Monument, and the subject of one of the best ghost stories in the Cape. The Eksteen family who owned the property in the early 1900’s, loved a good party and during one drunken New Year’s Eve, a young nobleman, Frederick Eksteen, was challenged to ride his horse around the living room. He did so proudly at first and everyone cheered, but due to the wild and noisy antics of the party, the horse got spooked and tumbled down the steps of the verandah. Frederick was dragged to his death while the horse didn’t survive either. Ever since then, those who’ve worked at the manor have claimed they often hear strange sounds such as drunken laughter and horse hooves, and some have even witnessed a man on horseback galloping around the property in the early hours of the morning, particularly on New Year’s eve. Ghost House of Rondebosch This three-story Edwardian dwelling of a bye-gone era looks completely out of place, and particularly creepy in the leafy suburb of Rondebosch. Apparently, during the 1970’s the house was used by a cult group to conduct many sinister activities, leaving a dark and mysterious energy behind. Those who have been brave enough to venture close to the gates have spotted a ghostly old man wandering through the rooms and have heard doors opening and closing shut for no apparent reason. Greenpoint Lighthouse Arguably one of the most recognizable landmarks in Cape Town, the red-and-white striped Green Point lighthouse dates back to the 1800’s, and with it’s historical significance comes hearsay of ghost stories and paranormal activity that’s swirled around for generations. The story goes that the lighthouse was once guarded by a lighthouse keeper by the name of W.S West who disappeared for reasons unknown. However, his spirit still roams around the tower as a one-legged figure called ‘Daddy West’ – it said that his voice can be heard echoing along the tower walls late night. In 2014, the Cape Town Paranormal Investigations Unit (yes that’s a thing) went on an expedition to the lighthouse and came back with this recording of a demonic voice, which supposedly provides some concrete evidence to the rumours. Rust en Vreugd This historical dwelling from the 1700’s was built as the residence of a corrupt official of the Dutch East India Company and today functions as an art gallery and museum. Visitors often receive a few guests themselves, reportedly feeling a tap on their shoulder, but seeing no one behind them once they turn around. Other guests hear footsteps or sometimes see a floating woman lingering between rooms on the ground floor, while another woman can be seen glaring down at guests from an upstairs window with an empty cot beside her. It is also reported that dogs take a great disliking to the portrait of Lord Charles Somerset, a British Govenor who also previously lived at Rust en Vreugd, and repeatedly snarl at his painting. Castle of Good Hope Built in the 1600’s the Castle of Good Hope has a rich yet rather torturous history that’s seen many lives being lost in violent ways. Not surprisingly, these tormented souls still inhabit the area and often make their presence known to visitors and passers-by. The angry ghost of Govenor Van Noordt, who was a strict and unyielding man, once ordered several soldiers to be hanged on his watch. Later that day, he was found dead from a heart attack after one of the soldiers apparently cursed him. Now his soul is ill-fated to never leave the castle walls and workers and visitors have made mention of his bitter presence. Other reports include an angry black dog that antagonizes guests but then mysteriously disappears, and voices and shuffling can often be heard from the Dark Hole, an underground chamber that was used for torturing. In addition, the bell in the Bell Tower which was walled up centuries ago after a soldier hung himself with the bell-rope, is said to frequently ring on it’s own accord. Groot Costantia Another 17th century manor house, this one in Groot Constantia, belonged to Simon Van der Stel, one the earliest settlers of the Cape, who had a great attachment to the land. It is often reported that a figure resembling Van der Stel can been seen strolling in the gardens and having a dip in the pool on summer mornings. Ghost of Elsa Cloete at Kitima Restaurant It is widely known that Kitima restaurant at the historic Kronendal Manor, is disturbed by the spirits of a young couple from the 1800’s who were banned from spending their lives together. It is said that a British soldier sought the hand of Elsa Cloete who lived at the estate with her family, but her father forbade the union. The soldier is said to have been so distraught at the loss of his love that he hanged himself in an oak tree just outside the house. Elsa died shortly afterwards. These days the lovers can still be seen in and around the house, staring out of windows, dimming lights and moving objets around while the soldier lingers around the oak tree where he ended his own life. The staff at the restaurant consider the pair to be rather fascinating guests and even lay a table out for them every evening. Table Mountain This list wouldn’t be complete without an ominous Table Mountain tale. According to mythology, a governor of Cape Town once made enemies with a citizen, who took vengeance through the governor’s son by giving him a beautiful yet tainted flute as a gift. The flute once belonged to a leper, causing the boy to contract the leprosy disease. He was then banished to live in exile in the lonely forests of Platteklip Gorge on Table Mountain, and to this day, the melancholy sounds of his flute can be heard trailing down the upper reaches of this lonely gorge. The Ghosts of Cape Town’s Past 7 spooky stories - from the Castle of Good Hope to Groote Schuur The Western Cape has a plethora of these myths and folklore to tell. From haunted houses to ghost ships, ghost riders and even mermaids, here are some of the best known stories from Cape Town; you can go to these sites – if you have the courage. GHOSTS ARE WELCOMED AT THIS RESTAURANT Kitima Restaurant is a tidy Hout Bay Asian eatery situated on The Kronendal, a 17th century former Dutch homestead … with a history. Part of that history is Elsa Cloete, a Dutch woman who lived in the homestead in the mid-1800s. Story has it that the young Elsa and a British soldier were madly in love, but her father wouldn’t allow them to see each other. So the young soldier hung himself from a tree, and the young girl died of a broken heart. According to reports from Kitima Restaurant staff, Cloete may be dead, but she isn’t gone. The staff have seen pots fly off wall hooks and lights dim without explanation. Guests have also reported sightings of a spectral female figure in one of the manor windows. The young soldier’s spirit also lives on as guests have reported sightings of a man’s outline lurking between the manor’s oak trees. Out of respect for the doomed lovers, the restaurant sets a table for them with food and wine every night. THE LEGEND OF THE FLYING DUTCHMAN For centuries, seafarers have reported a spectral ship sailing around the tip of Cape Point on stormy nights. Witnesses say that if you hail the ship, it releases rowboats with phantom men who approach you with letters to deliver to their loved ones. These accounts are linked to the tale of a vessel called The Flying Dutchman that was caught in a storm in 1641 near Cape Point while journeying to Holland from Indonesia. The captain reportedly refused to turn back, swearing he would round the jagged tip of Africa if it was the last thing he did. It was. The boat was destroyed and all the crew drowned that night. There have been sightings from Cape Point and Cape Agulhas, but don’t be so keen to see for yourself: witnessing the Flying Dutchman is said to be a bad omen. Cape Of Good Hope | Cape Point Road | +27 (0)21 780 9526 NO ONE STAYS THE NIGHT HERE Just past Kalk Bay Harbour is a Building called Spring Tide. The name is on the door, which hasn’t been opened for years. Legends about it abound, of buyers upping and leaving the property, tenants moving in and not staying one night. Even when abandoned, opportunistic vagrants wouldn’t sleep there. One of the standout stories from this house is from the mid-90s, when the house hosted a crèche. One day during nap time, a teacher heard a loud scream followed by the children crying. One child described how a woman came halfway down the stairs, then stopped and uttered one, guttural scream. The crèche didn’t last long, and stories surfaced about a love triangle that had turned ugly. Some time ago a woman had found her lover murdered by her husband after he had discovered her infidelity. That moment of discovery is believed to be the apparition the children witnessed that day. Spring Tide is currently being refurbished. At the moment, builders are only doing exterior cosmetic work. Whether they’re going to work inside remains to be seen. 168 Main Road | Kalk Bay NO MATTER HOW FAST HE GOES, HE NEVER GETS AWAY Some say he’s headless, others say he’s completely clad in black, but many Mitchells Plain residents will vouch for the existence of the ghost motorcycle on Spine Road, which cuts its way through Mitchells Plain and Khayelitsha right through to Blue Downs. The part of the road in question is a bridge, bordered by the Mitchells Plain subsections of Portlands, Tafelsig as well as Spine Road High School. Legend has it that on Friday nights, just after midnight, a phantom motorcycle speeds over the bridge. Not many have seen him, they say he moves too fast, but on a quiet, windless night, he can be heard speeding by. The strange thing is that the motorcycle never stops accelerating, they say: you hear it work through the gears and then accelerating at a high speed, engine whining. But it’s as if he never gets off the bridge, no matter how fast he goes. The myth is linked to a true story about a motorcycle rider who, speeding down Spine Road on a Harley Davidson, crashed at the foot of the bridge, and died. BEWARE THE BEAUTIES OF THE KAROO From Aquaman to Ariel, mermaids are portrayed as the good guys. But not all mermaids are honourable. British folklore says they are bad omens, and in eastern Europe they’re said to be undead brides who drowned and tempt men to the same fate. In central, west and southern Africa they’re known as Mami Wata (Mother of Water), female humanoid fish who lure men to their deaths. As a matter of fact, the Karoo dam of Bufeljags is teeming with them, according to local stories. Locals point to several unmarked graves around the banks of the dam, believed to be men lured to the slaughter by the mermaids. Locals say that the creatures seduce men with beauty: tapping into their psyche and portraying any beauty features that would lure them. There are no reports on how these men meet their end, because no one has lived to tell of the encounter. CEMETERIES ARE HAUNTED … DUH Here’s a stupid question: who would walk through a cemetery in the middle of the night? Well, apparently two friends thought it would be a good idea to walk through a graveyard in Claremont – the night before Halloween in 2014. One of them started snapping photos on a camera and, when checking the screen, noticed that the images were covered in orbs. Spook-story enthusiasts will tell you that orbs, or backscatter, represent some sort of supernatural presence. Science says it’s dust and insects that the camera can’t focus on. But we think the supernatural angle won the argument on this night. On closer inspection the two friends noticed a blurry figure lurking in one of the pictures. It was a man with a white beard and red clothing. Flabbergasted, they researched and discovered that Sir John Molteno, the first Prime Minister of the Cape Colony, is buried in this cemetery. Sir John was renowned for his long white beard and had joined a Boer commando to fight in the Cape Frontier War. Historical portraits of that war show that Boer soldiers fought in red attire. Saint Saviours Anglican Church | Bowwood Road & Main Road | Claremont OUTSMOKING THE DEVIL Ever notice how clouds often cover the top of Table Mountain like a blanket? Capetonians fondly call it the tablecloth. But there is a famous, 120-year-old story attached to this phenomenon. According to a poem by 18th century poet Dante Gabriel Rossetti called Jan Van Hunks, the first ever tablecloth was caused by the smoking pipe of the prolific Dutch pirate the poem is named after. As the story goes, Van Hunks lived at the foot of the mountain and wasn’t allowed to smoke in the house, so he would smoke outside on the mountain side. One day, Van Hunks met another smoker and the two dueled to see who could smoke the most – Van Hunks claimed no-one could outdo him. The second smoker turned out the be the devil. Van Hunks won the duel but not before the two covered the entire mountain top with their pipe smoke. Whenever Table Mountain is covered with the “tablecloth”, some Capetonians still tell their children that Van Hunks is dueling with the devil again. There’s also a long-standing belief that this duel is the reason Devils Peak has its name. Uncovering the Top 5 Haunted Roads of South Africa: Tales of Ghostly Apparitions and Unexplained Phenomena South Africa is home to several haunted roads, including Voortrekker Road, N2 Highway, Greyling Street, Swartberg Pass, and Potgietersrus Road. Despite the lack of evidence, people have reported strange experiences on these roads, such as ghostly apparitions and unexplained noises. The stories surrounding these haunted roads continue to intrigue and fascinate people. South Africa is a land of rich folklore and legends which is no surprise that many of its roads are said to be haunted. From ghostly hitchhikers to phantom bikers, the stories of these haunted roads have been passed down through generations, chilling drivers and passengers alike. In this article, we explore five of the most haunted roads in South Africa and the ghostly legends that make them so terrifying. 1.) The N2 Highway in Durban: The N2 Highway in Durban is said to be haunted by the ghost of a woman who was killed in a car accident on the road. According to legend, the woman's spirit still walks the road at night and she is often seen wearing a white dress and carrying a handbag. Some drivers have reported seeing her in their rearview mirrors, while others have claimed to have given her a lift, only for her to disappear before they reach their destination. There have also been reports of unexplained accidents and strange occurrences on this stretch of road. 2.) The Voortrekker Road in Cape Town: The Voortrekker Road in Cape Town is known for its haunted bridge, which is said to be the site of a tragic accident that claimed the lives of several people. According to legend, the spirits of the deceased still haunt the area and drivers have reported seeing apparitions on the road at night. Some have even reported hearing screams and cries for help coming from the bridge. It is said that the spirits are more active on the anniversary of the accident. 3.) The R33 between Greytown and Dundee: The R33 between Greytown and Dundee is said to be haunted by a phantom biker who died in a crash on the road. According to legend, the biker's spirit still rides the road at night and drivers have reported seeing him speeding towards them, only to disappear before he reaches them. Some have also reported feeling a sudden chill and a feeling of dread as the biker approaches. 4.) The Uniondale Ghost Road: The Uniondale Ghost Road is one of South Africa's most famous haunted roads. According to legend, a family died in a car accident on the road in the 1960s and their spirits still haunt the area. Drivers have reported seeing a ghostly family walking along the road, as well as hearing the sounds of a car crash and screams for help. The legend of the Uniondale Ghost Road has become so well-known that it has even inspired a song and a movie. 5.) The Old Johannesburg Road: The Old Johannesburg Road in Pretoria is said to be haunted by the spirits of soldiers who died in battle during the Anglo-Boer War. According to legend, the soldiers still march along the road at night and drivers have reported hearing the sounds of marching boots and seeing apparitions of soldiers in their rearview mirrors. Some have also reported feeling a sense of unease and sadness while driving on this road. Whether you believe in the supernatural or not, the stories of these haunted roads are sure to send shivers down your spine. From the Uniondale Ghost Road to the R33 between Greytown and Dundee, South Africa's haunted roads are steeped in history, folklore and mystery. So if you ever find yourself driving down one of these roads, keep your wits about you and remember the tales of those who have encountered the spirits that haunt them. Drive safe and beware of the unknown. BACK TO THE TOP OF THE PAGE

HISTORY OF SOUTH AFRICA South Africa has a rich and complex history that spans thousands of years. From the indigenous San and Khoi peoples to the arrival of European colonizers in the 17th century, the country has experienced significant social, political, and economic changes. The 20th century saw the rise of apartheid a system of institutionalized racial segregation and discrimination, was eventually dismantled in the 1990s with the release of Nelson Mandela and the establishment of a democratic government. Today, South Africa continues to grapple with issues of inequality, poverty, and social justice, while also celebrating its diverse cultural heritage and beauty. THE FIRST SETTLERS IN SOUTH AFRICA Modern humans have lived at the southern tip of Africa for more than 100 000 years and their ancestors for some 3,3 million years. Some 2 000 years ago, the Khoekhoen (the Hottentots of early European terminology) were pastoralists who had settled mostly along the coast, while the San (the Bushmen) were hunter-gatherers spread across the region. At this time, Bantu-speaking agropastoralists began arriving in southern Africa, spreading from the eastern lowlands to the Highveld. At several archaeological sites there is evidence of sophisticated political and material cultures. European contact The first European settlement in southern Africa was established by the Dutch East India Company in Table Bay (Cape Town) in 1652. Created to supply passing ships with fresh produce, the colony grew rapidly as Dutch farmers settled to grow crops. Shortly after the establishment of the colony, slaves were imported from East Africa, Madagascar and the East Indies. The first British Settlers, known as the 1820 Settlers, arrived in Algoa Bay (now Nelson Mandela Bay) on board 21 ships, the first being the Chapman. They numbered about 4 500 and included artisans, tradesmen, religious leaders, merchants, teachers, bookbinders, blacksmiths, discharged sailors and soldiers, professional men and farmers. Conflict From the 1770s, colonists came into contact and inevitable conflict with Bantu-speaking chiefdoms some 800 km east of Cape Town. A century of intermittent warfare ensued during which the colonists gained ascendancy over the isiXhosa-speaking chiefdoms. In 1795, the British occupied the Cape as a strategic base against the French, controlling the sea route to the East. In the 1820s, the celebrated Zulu leader, Shaka, established sway over a vast area of south-east Africa. As splinter Zulu groups conquered and absorbed communities in their path, the region experienced a fundamental disruption. Substantial states, such as Moshoeshoe’s Lesotho and other Sotho-Tswana chiefdoms were established. This temporary disruption of life on the Highveld served to facilitate the expansion northwards of the original Dutch settlers’ descendants, the Boer Voortrekkers, from the 1830s. Occupation In 1806, Britain reoccupied the Cape. As the colony prospered, the political rights of the various races were guaranteed, with slavery being abolished in 1838. Throughout the 1800s, the boundaries of European influence spread eastwards. From the port of Durban, Natal settlers pushed northwards, further and further into the land of the Zulu. From the mid-1800s, the Voortrekkers coalesced in two land-locked white-ruled republics, the South African Republic (Transvaal) and the Orange Free State. The mineral revolution South Africa’s diamond mining industry dates back to 1867, when diamonds were discovered near Kimberley in what is today known as the Northern Cape. The Kimberley diamond fields, and later discoveries in Gauteng, the Free State, and along the Atlantic coast, emerged as major sources of gem-quality diamonds, securing South Africa’s position as the world’s leading producer in the mid-twentieth century. Gold The discovery of the Witwatersrand goldfields in 1886 was a turning point in South Africa’s history. The demand for franchise rights for English-speaking immigrants working on the new goldfields was the pretext Britain used to go to war with the Transvaal and Orange Free State in 1899. The Anglo-Boer/South African War was the bloodiest, longest and most expensive war Britain engaged in between 1815 and 1915. It cost more than 200 million pounds and Britain lost more than 22 000 men. The Boers lost over 34 000 people and more than 15 000 black South Africans were killed. Union and opposition In 1910, the Union of South Africa was created out of the Cape, Natal, Transvaal and Free State. It was to be essentially a white union. Black opposition was inevitable, and the African National Congress (ANC) was founded in 1912 to protest the exclusion of black people from power. In 1921, the South African Communist Party was established at a time of heightened militancy. More discriminatory legislation was enacted. Meanwhile, Afrikaner nationalism, fuelled by job losses arising from a worldwide recession, was on the march. Reform Shaken by the scale of protest and opposition, the government embarked on a series of limited reforms in the early 1980s. In 1983, the Constitution was reformed to allow the coloured and Indian minorities limited participation in separate and subordinate houses of parliament. In 1986, the pass laws were scrapped. The international community strengthened its support for the anti-apartheid cause. Mass resistance increasingly challenged the apartheid State, which resorted to intensified repression accompanied by eventual recognition that apartheid could not be sustained. Apartheid's last days Afrikaner élite openly started to pronounce in favour of a more inclusive society, with a number of businesspeople, students and academic leaders meeting publicly and privately with the ANC in exile. Petty apartheid laws and symbols were openly challenged and eventually removed. Together with a sliding economy, increasing internal dissent and international pressure, these developments inevitably led to historic changes and the fall of apartheid. Democratic government South Africa held its first democratic election in April 1994 under an interim Constitution. The ANC emerged with a 62% majority. South Africa was divided into nine new provinces to replace the four existing provinces and 10 black homelands. In terms of the interim Constitution, the NP and Inkatha Freedom Party participated in a government of national unity under President Mandela, South Africa’s first democratically elected president. The second democratic election, in 1999, saw the ANC increasing its majority to a point just short of two-thirds of the total vote. In the April 2004 election, the ANC won the national vote with 69,68% and the celebration of 10 Years of Freedom attended by heads of state and government delegations from across the world. In 2008, Mr Kgalema Motlanthe became President following the recalling of President Thabo Mbeki. On 22 April 2009, South Africa held national and provincial elections with about 76% of registered voters casting their votes. Jacob Zuma was inaugurated as President of South Africa on 9 May 2009. The following year, a significant milestone for South Africa was the hosting of the 2010 FIFA World Cup TM. Municipal elections were held on 18 May 2011, electing new councils for all municipalities in the country. October 2011 saw Statistics South Africa conducting a comprehensive national census. The census, which analysed the country’s demographics, population distribution and access to services, average household size, income, migration, and mortality, was the third national population and housing count in post-apartheid South Africa. The exercise saw 156 000 field staff employed to count more than 14,6 million households. South Africa has continued to build on its international profile. On 1 January 2011, the country started its second term as a non-permanent member of the United Nations (UN) Security Council between 2011 and 2012, serving alongside the five permanent members, China, France, the Russian Federation, the United Kingdom and the United States of America, as well as elected members Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brazil, Colombia, Gabon, Germany, India, Lebanon, Nigeria and Portugal. In 2011, as part of government’s commitment to secure a better quality of life for all, the National Planning Commission in The Presidency finalised the draft National Development Plan: Vision for 2030 . The plan is a step towards charting a new path for South Africa in dealing with the triple challenge of poverty, unemployment and inequality. On 8 January 2012, Africa’s oldest liberation movement, the ANC, celebrated 100 years of existence. This was a historic achievement, not only for the movement, but also for South Africa and the continent. In May 2012, the Square Array Kilometre (SKA) Organisation announced that the SKA Project would be shared between South Africa and Australia, with a majority share coming to South Africa. The full dish array and the dense aperture array will be built in Africa. In November 2012, South Africa was elected by the members of the UN General Assembly to the UN’s 47-member Economic and Social Council.. In December 2012, President Zuma was re-elected as the president of the ANC during the ruling party’s congress in Mangaung, Free State with Cyril Ramaphosa elected as the party’s deputy president. In July 2013, Phumzile Mlambo-Ngcuka, was appointed executive director of the UN Women Entity for Gender Equality and Empowerment of Women, and Geraldine Fraser-Moleketi, was appointed director in the UN Development Programme’s Bureau for Development Policy.. On 5 December 2013, South Africa’s first democratically elected President and anti-apartheid icon Mandela died at the age of 95. Mr Mandela led South Africa’s transition from white-minority rule in the 1990s, after 27 years in prison for his political activities.. He had been receiving intensive medical care at home for a lung infection after spending three months in hospital. His body lay in state at the Union Buildings from 11 to 13 December. He was buried in his home town of Qunu in the Eastern Cape on 15 December 2013.. South Africa celebrated 20 Years of Freedom in 2014, which was a historic milestone for the country. The Twenty Year Review , which was released in 2013, and the National Planning Commission’s 2011 Diagnostic Report, highlight that poverty, inequality and unemployment continue to negatively affect the lives of many people. Despite progress in reducing rural poverty and increasing access to basic services in rural areas over the past 20 years, rural areas are still characterised by great poverty and inequality. As stated in the NDP, by 2030, South Africa’s rural communities must have better opportunities to participate fully in the economic, social and political life of the country. Government’s programme of radical economic transformation is about placing the economy on a qualitatively different path that ensures more rapid, sustainable growth, higher investment, increased employment, reduced inequality and deracialisation of the economy. The NDP sets a growth target of at least 5% a year, and emphasises measures to ensure that the benefits of growth are equitably shared.. South Africa’s fifth general elections were held on 7 May 2014. It was also the first time that South African expatriates were allowed to vote in a South African national election. The ANC won the National Assembly election (62,1%) and the official opposition Democratic Alliance (DA) won 22,2% of the votes, while the newly formed Economic Freedom Fighters (EFF) obtained 6,4% of the vote. The ANC also won eight of the nine provincial legislatures. The EFF obtained over 10% of the votes in Gauteng, Limpopo and North West, and beat the DA to second place in Limpopo and North West. In the other six provinces won by the ANC, the DA obtained second place. In the Western Cape, the only province not won by the ANC, the DA increased its majority from 51,5% to 59,4%.. In 2015, South Africa celebrated the 60th Anniversary of the Freedom Charter, which called for peace and friendship among nations. The 40th Anniversary of the 16 June 1976 Soweto Student Uprising was celebrated in 2016, along with the 20th Anniversary of the signing of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa of 1996 . The 2016 municipal elections were held on 3 August 2016. The ANC won 53,9% of the total vote, followed by the official opposition DA with 26,9% and the EFF with 8,2%. In 2017, South Africa celebrated five years since the launch of the National Development Plan, which outlines the goals to achieve the vision of a prosperous South Africa by tackling the triple challenge of unemployment, poverty and inequality by 2030.. South Africa celebrated the Centenary of the late Oliver Reginald Tambo in 2017, under the theme: “Life and Legacy of OR Tambo”. He was one of the key drivers of South Africa’s liberation and one of the founding fathers of the country’s constitutional democracy. At its 54th National Conference held at Nasrec in Soweto on 18 December 2017, the ANC elected Mr Ramaphosa as its president. Following the resignation of President Zuma in February 2018, Mr Ramaphosa was elected unopposed as the fifth President of democratic South Africa by the National Assembly on 15 February 2018. In 2018, South Africa celebrated the centenary of two Struggle stalwarts, Tata Mandela and Mama Albertina Nontsikelelo Sisulu. In 2019, South Africa celebrated 25 Years of Freedom. In May 2019, the country also held its sixth national and provincial elections. The ANC won 57,50% of the total vote, followed by the official opposition DA with 20,77% and the EFF with 10.79%. On 25 May 2019, Mr Ramaphosa was inaugurated as the sixth democratically elected President of South Africa. In a departure from the tradition of holding the inauguration at the Union Buildings, the event took place at Loftus Versfeld Stadium in Pretoria. On 31 December 2019, the World Health Organization reported a cluster of pneumonia cases in Wuhan City, China. ‘Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2’ (SARSCoV-2) was confirmed as the causative agent of what we now know as ‘Coronavirus Disease 2019’ (COVID-19). Since then, the virus has spread to more than 100 countries, including South Africa. On 15 March 2020, President Ramaphosa declared a national state of disaster, and announced measures such as immediate travel restrictions and the closure of schools from 18 March. The declaration of the National State of Disaster empowered government to take the measures that prevented many more people from becoming severely ill and saved countless lives. It also provided the legal basis for the introduction of the special R350 Social Relief of Distress Grant and the establishment of the COVID Temporary Employee/ Employer Relief Scheme, which provided wage support to millions of workers. On 17 March, the National Coronavirus Command Council was established to lead the nation’s plan to contain the spread and mitigate the negative impact of COVID-19. On 23 March, a 21-day national lockdown was announced, starting on 27 March 2020. President Ramaphosa announced that from 1 May 2020, a gradual and phased easing of the lockdown restrictions would begin. From 1 June, the national restrictions were lowered to Alert Level 3. The restrictions were lowered to alert Level 2 on 17 August 2020 and from 21 September 2020 restrictions were lowered to Alert Level 1. Government declared 2021 The Year of Charlotte Mannya-Maxeke under the theme: “The Year of Charlotte Mannya-Maxeke: Realising Women’s Equality”. She was a pioneer, activist, artist, intellectual, internationalist and visionary. On 1 November 2021, the country held its sixth Local Government Elections. The ANC won the majority seats in 161 municipal councils, followed by the DA in 13 municipalities and the IFP in 10 municipalities. A total of 66 municipal councils were hung – meaning that no party gained an outright majority in those councils. From the 9th to the 18th of July 2021, South Africa experienced civil unrest mainly in some parts of KwaZulu-Natal and Gauteng, which left in its wake over 354 people dead. The Judicial Commission of Inquiry into Allegations of State Capture, Corruption and Fraud in the Public Sector, led by then Deputy Chief Justice Raymond Zondo (now Chief Justice), handed all its report to The Presidency in 2022. On 2 January 2022, a major fire broke out at the parliamentary complex housing the Parliament of South Africa in Cape Town. A suspect, Mr Zandile Made, was arrested and charged with arson. In April 2022, government lifted the National State of Disaster but retained “transitionary measures” for the following thirty days, which included the wearing of masks, limitations on gatherings and international travel. In June 2022, the Ministry of Health repealed the transitionary COVID-19 measures, including the wearing of masks, limitations on gatherings and international travel. In July 2022, Justice Mandisa Maya – the first woman to lead the Supreme Court of Appeal as Deputy President and President respectively – became the first woman to be appointed Deputy Chief Justice of the Constitutional Court of South Africa. President Ramaphosa appointed Maya in terms of Section 174(3) of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa of 1996. On 20 August 2022, King Misuzulu ka Zwelithini was crowned as the new Zulu King at a ceremony held at the Moses Mabhida Stadium in Durban. This was the first Zulu coronation since South Africa became a democracy in 1994. It followed the death of his father, King Goodwill Zwelithini, on 12 March 2021, aged 72. In November 2022, the Constitutional Court ordered the release of a Polish national, Mr Janusz Walus, on parole. In April 1993, Mr Walus assassinated Mr Chris Hani, the then General Secretary of the South African Communist Party and chief of staff of Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK), the armed wing of the ANC. On 7 March 2023, Mr Paul Mashatile was sworn in as South Africa’s new Deputy President, following the resignation of former Deputy President David Mabuza, the latter who was first sworn in as Deputy President of the Republic of South Africa on 27 February 2018 and again on 30 May 2019 for the 6th democratic Administration. Mr Mashatile was elected as the Deputy President of the ANC in December 2022 during the ANC’s 55th national conference held at the Johannesburg Expo Centre in Nasrec. View More BACK TO THE TOP OF THE PAGE

Explore the Wonders of South Africa! Discover the Untamed Wilderness Welcome to South Africa South Africa is a country rich in wildlife and history, making it a popular destination for travelers. From the famous Kruger National Park to the Robben Island, there are plenty of places visit and explore. Other must-see destinations include the Cape of Good Hope, Table Mountain, and the Apartheid Museum. Whether you're interested in nature, culture, or history, South Africa has something for everyone. Read More WELCOME WELKOM WILLKOMMEN TO MY WEBSITE ABOUT SOUTH AFRICA Get to Know Us Southernstar-africa is a Homepage and Website based on South Africa,The Life and Culture and Wildlife and as Well of our Lives ,when we were still Liveing in South Africa .This Homepage has Information on South African History,on the Wildlife and the Big Five Game of South Africa. You Can find Pictures ,Links ,News,Recipes,Joke ,South African Ghost Stories and many other things that mite Intrest you,and also for School Projects,Some Pages are not for childrens View. You will find link banner on top of the webpages,at the bottom of the website,and on the left side of the page,you will also see alot of pages are link to other sites ,on the Net,and as well linked to partner and our own websites and Homepages... View More My Story I Was Born On the 15 November 1960 in Germany and was Brought up in South Africa,Have Three of my Own Children and One child that I brought up as my Own Child,Two staying In South Africa and Two Staying with me in Germany. My Nick Name is Andy,and have a Profile on Facebook My Face book Profile Andy Willi Dezius | Create your badge View More WILDLIFE IN THE KRUGER NATIONAL PARK SOUTH AFRICA View More What We Share 01 THINGS TO DO IN SOUTH AFRICA South Africa is a country full of amazing things to do and see. From the stunning beaches of Cape Town to the wildlife of Kruger National Park, there is something for everyone. Take a cable up Table Mountain, go a safari, or visit the historic Robben Island. Whatever your interests, South Africa is sure to leave you with unforgettable memories. 02 ADVENTURES IN SOUTH AFRICA Discover the beauty of South Africa with our exciting adventure tours. From breathtaking safaris to stunning beaches, our tours offer an unforgettable experience. Book now and don't miss out on the adventure of a lifetime! 03 TOP WILDLIFE PHOTOS IN SOUTH AFRICA The Kruger National Park is a wildlife photographer's paradise. With its vast landscapes and diverse range of animals, it offers endless opportunities to capture stunning shots. From majestic elephants to elusive leopards, the park is home to some of the most iconic species in Africa. Explore the park's many trails and lookout points capture the perfect shot and create unforgettable. 04 PLACES TO VISIT IN SOUTH AFRICA South Africa is a country full of breathtaking landscapes and unique experiences. From the stunning beaches of Cape Town to the wildlife reserves of Kruger National Park, there is something for everyone. Take a trip the top of Table Mountain for panoramic views of the city or explore the vibrant culture of Johannesburg. Don't forget to visit the historic Robben Island, where Nelson Mandela was imprisoned 18 years. Africa is a must-visit destination for any traveler seeking adventure and beauty. THE HISTORY OF SOUTH AFRICA THE VOORTREKKER MONUMENT THE FIRST SETTLERS THE SOUTH AFRICAN FLAG ANGLO ZULU WAR THE BATTLE OF BLOOD RIVER THE GREAT TREK THE VOORTREKKERS THE DAY OF THE VOW THE ANGLO BOERE WAR View More View More View More View More View More View More View More View More View More Exploring the Rich Wildlife of South Africa: A Journey into the Country's Diverse and Exclusive Reserves Imagine embarking on a safari adventure where at every turn, you encounter some of the most magnificent and rare wildlife that South... Sep 21, 2024 Latest Adventures Embark on an unforgettable adventure through the Kruger National Park in South Africa with our tours. Witness the beauty of the wild game in their natural habitat and experience the thrill of spotting the Big Five. Book your safari tour today and create memories that will last a lifetime. Wild life View More View More 30+ Safari Parks Explored 4+ Cultural Experiences 1000+ Wildlife Sightings 50+ Happy Travelers GAUTENG KWA ZULU NATAL EASTERN CAPE FREE STATE MPUMALANGA LIMPOPO NORTHERN CAPE NORTH WEST WESTERN CAPE View More View More View More View More View More View More View More View More View More NINE PROVINCES THE NINE PROVINCES IN SOUTH AFRICA EVERY THING ABOUT SOUTH AFRICA TO DISCOVER SOUTH AFRICAN ART PEOPLE OF SOUTH AFRICA SOUTH AFRICAN SPORT SAFARI TOURS SOUTH AFRICA SOUTH AFRICAN FOODS AND RECIPES HIKEING IN SOUTH AFRICA KRUGER NATIONAL PARK CAMPING IN SOUTH AFRICA MAPS OF SOUTH AFRICA TRAVEL DOCUMENT FOR SOUTH AFRICA TRAVEL GUIDE PLACES TO VISIT IN SOUTH AFRICA View More View More View More View More View More View More View More View More View More View More View More View More View More View More View More View More View More View More SAFARI TOURS WILDLIFE & SOUTH AFRICA VIDEOS BIG FIVE GAME BANKNOTES WILDLIFE PROJECTS WILDLIFE PARKS BIG 5 GAME Wildlife and South Africa Südafrika: Kapstadt, Safari und Garden Route mit Sarazar | ARD Reisen ARD Reisen Play Video Share Whole Channel This Video Facebook Twitter Pinterest Tumblr Copy Link Link Copied Search videos Search video... Now Playing Südafrika: Kapstadt, Safari und Garden Route mit Sarazar | ARD Reisen 29:32 Play Video Now Playing South Africa - Country of hope | Travelvideo 02:44 Play Video Now Playing Most Amazing Kruger National Park Wildlife Sightings of 2022 10:51 Play Video Here are some of the top videos of South Africa that you might enjoy watching: 1. "The Beauty of South Africa" by Expedia 2. "Cape Town, South Africa" by Destinations 3. "Kruger National Park" by National Geographic4. "South in 4K" by Around The World 4K 5. "Johannesburg, South Africa" by The York Times. BACK TO THE TOP OF THE PAGE WELCOME TO SOUTH AFRICA TOURS ENTER HERE

General De la Rey General De la Rey releases General Lord Methuen after his wounds are treated 8 March 1902 References South African History Online, ‘Anglo-Boer War 2: Gen. De la Rey defeats and captures Gen. Methuen in the Battle of Tweebosch (or De Klipdrift) in Western Tran’ , [online] available at www.sahistory.org.za (Accessed: 13 February 2013)| Boddy-Evans, A. ‘This Day in African History: 8 March’ , from About African History, [online], available at africanhistory.about.com (Accessed: 13 February 2013)| Melrose House, ‘The Guerrilla War, Part 3’ , [online], available at www.melrosehouse.co.za (Accessed: 13 February 2013) Towards the end of the Second South African War (Anglo-Boer War 2), General De La Rey released General Lord Methuen after his wounds were treated. After only travelling 29 kilometres Methuen's party was once again taken - De La Rey had been forced to reverse his decision by the burghers of his Commando. General Methuen was defeated and captured by General De La Rey on 7 March 1902 in the Battle of Tweebosch (or De Klipdrift), Western Transvaal. This was the last important battle won by the Boer forces. Methuen and more than 870 soldiers were captured. General De la Rey protests British mistreatment of women and children 16 August 1901 References Wessels. A.c., "General De la Rey protests British mistreatment of women and children ",from women24,[Online], available at blogs.women24.com [Accessed: 14 August 2013]| Anglo-Boer War. [online] Available at: angloboerwar.com [Accessed 4 August 2009] The Anglo-Boer War broke out in 1899 and was the result of the British annexation of the Transvaal, soon after gold had been discovered in the region in 1886. The Boers made use of guerrilla tactics by sabotaging British supply wagons, while the British responded by burning down the farms that the Boers received their supplies from. This was known as the scorched earth policy and resulted in the destruction of over 30 000 Boer farm houses. Boer women and children, as well as their black servants, were taken to concentration camps, where they were met with appalling conditions, malnutrition, diseases and in many instances, death. The scorched earth policy had been implemented by March 1901. On 16 August 1901, De la Rey, a Boer general, had protested against the inhumane conditions to which women and children in the camps were being exposed. This cause was taken up by Emily Hobhouse, who campaigned for the closure of concentration camps and collected clothing, supplies and money to support Boer families at the end of the war. Around 26 000 Boer women and children, as well as 15 000 black people, died in concentration camps during the course of the Anglo-Boer War. The Treaty of Vereeniging, signed in May 1902, brought the closure of the concentration camps and an end to the inhumane treatment of Boer women and children at the hands of the British. Related: The Rise of Afrikaner Nationalism Anglo-Boer War 2: The Battle of Enslin or Graspan takes place, with the burghers under General De la Rey and Commandant Lubbe Anglo-Boer War 2 -ZAR General De la Rey arrests ex-General Schoeman on his farm near Pretoria for refusing to obey an order to General De la Rey protests the British mistreatment of women and children. National Party (NP) The first leader of the National Party (NP) became Prime Minister as part of the PACT government in 1924. The NP was the governing party of South Africa from 1948 until 1994, and was disbanded in 2005. Its policies included apartheid, the establishment of a South African Republic, and the promotion of Afrikaner culture. NP members were sometimes known as ‘Nationalists’ or ‘Nats’. The feature includes a history of the National party, broken down into sections, according to significant periods of the NP’s history. An archive section listing and linking to relevant speeches, articles, documents and interviews. Featured is also a people section that lists all of the key figures and members of the NP, with links to their relevant biographies. A history of the National Party Founding and ideology (1910-1914) In 1910 the Union of South Africa was established, and the previously separate colonies of the Cape, Natal, Transvaal and the Orange Free State became provinces in the Union. However, the union was established with dominion status, which effectively meant that South Africa was no longer a colony, but it was not independent and could not leave the empire or ignore the monarchy. After the 1910 elections Louis Botha became the first prime minister of the Union, and headed the South African Party (SAP) - an amalgam of Afrikaner parties that advocated close cooperation between Afrikaners and persons of British descent. The founder of the NP, General JBM Hertzog, was a member of the Union Government, and was fiercely and publicly nationalistic. This offended English-speaking South Africans and stood in opposition to Botha’s policies of national unity. However, many Afrikaans people saw Hertzog as their representative and many important Afrikaans political and cultural leaders supported him- particularly people from the Orange Free State and the Cape. Hertzog often publicly disagreed with the opinions of his fellow leaders of the SAP, in particular, those of Prime Minister Louis Botha and General Jan Smuts. He promoted South Africa’s interests above Britain’s and saw English and Afrikaans South Africans developing in two parallel, but separate, cultural streams. Some enthusiastic supporters of the British Empire’s presence in South Africa described him as anti-British, and called for his removal from government. Some even decided to resign rather than work with him- while he refused to leave his position. In May 1913, his Orange Free State supporters in the SAP insisted on his inclusion in the cabinet at the SAP Free State Congress, while the Transvaal members who supported Botha thought he should be excluded. At the national SAP Congress in November 1913, in Cape Town, Botha won enough support to keep Hertzog out of the cabinet. This was the last straw for Hertzog and he left the SAP to form the National Party. From 1 to 9 January 1914, Hertzog’s supporters met in Bloemfontein to form the National Party, and to lay down its principles. The main aim was to direct the people’s ambitions and beliefs along Christian lines towards an independent South Africa. Political freedom from Britain was essential to the NP, but the party was prepared to maintain the current relationship with the Empire. They also insisted on equality of the two official languages, English and Dutch. Since Hertzog’s policies were orientated towards Afrikaner nationalism, most of his supporters were Afrikaans people. On 1 July 1914 the National Party of the Orange Free State was born and on 26 August the Transvaal followed. The Cape National Party was founded on 9 June 1915. The NP did not have a regular mouthpiece to promote its policies and campaigns like the SAP’s Ons Land newspaper in Cape Town and De Volkstem in Pretoria. Die Burger newspaper was therefore created in the Cape on 26 July 1915 for this specific purpose, with D. F. Malan as editor. The National Party strengthens (1914-1923) Most Afrikaners were against South African participation in World War 1 on the side of the British. Therefore, when South Africa was asked to invade German South West Africa (SWA) in August 1914 there was opposition from the ranks of the newly formed National Party (NP), and even from some who were part of the South African government. At their August congress the opposed invasion, and on 15 August there was a republican demonstration in Lichtenburg. Besides these protest efforts, it was agreed that South West Africa should be invaded. The economic depression after the war and dissatisfaction from Black South Africans and other extra-parliamentary groups made the SAP's rule more difficult. The main reason for black anger was Smuts' acceptance of the Stallard report that stated: ”It should be a recognised principle that natives (men, women and children) should only be permitted within municipal areas in so far and for as long as their presence is demanded by the wants of the white population. The masterless native in urban areas is a source of danger and a cause of degradation of both black and white. If the native is to be regarded as a permanent element in municipal areas there can be no justification for basing his exclusion from the franchise on the simple ground of colour.” (This report later led to the passing of the Natives (Urban Areas) Act no 21 of 1923). The Afrikaner opposition to WW1 proved to strengthen the, particularly after the death of General De la Rey (Afrikaners blamed Smuts and Botha). The death of General Louis Botha in 1919 pushed away more of the SAP supporters, and by the end of the Great War many of the SAP’s supporters had left the party and joined the. In the 1920 elections it became clear that the SAP would need the cooperation to form a combined cabinet, in order to maintain political stability. Members of both parties met at Robertson on 26 and 27 May 1920, and made a potential agreement. On 22 September the two parties met again, but they could not finalize an agreement. The main point of disagreement concerned South Africa’s relationship with Britain - Hertzog wanted independence, while Smuts was happy with the situation as it was. The Rand Rebellion of 1922 further strengthened the popularity, as it led to cooperation between the and the Labour Party (LP). The Rebellion was the result of severe labour unrest that had been simmering for some time. Both parties wanted to protect White labour, and decided to make a pact in April 1923 that would ensure that they would not oppose each other in the elections, and would support each other’s candidates in certain areas. This Pact resulted in the defeat of the SAP in the 27 June 1924 general elections. Afrikaans then became an official language and the country got a new flag. The Pact Government (1924-1938) After the Pact Government's 1924 election victory, South Africa had a new government. Hertzog was Prime Minister and also Minister of Native Affairs. His chief assistants were Tielman Roos (the leader of the National Party in the Transvaal), who was Deputy Prime Minister, and Minister of Justice. Dr D. F. Malan , who was the leader of the NP in the Cape, and became Minister of the Interior, Public Health and Education. Hertzog's close confidant, N. C. Havenga of the Orange Free State was made Minister of Finance. To express his gratitude to the Labour Party (for their help in getting him into power) Hertzog included two English-speaking Labour Party men in his cabinet, namely Colonel F. H. P. Creswell, as Minister of Defence, and T. Boydell, as Minister of Public Works, Posts and Telegraphs. The Hertzog government curtailed the electoral power of non-Whites, and furthered the system of allocating “reserved” areas for Blacks as their permanent homes- while regulating their movements in the remainder of the country. In 1926 South Africa’s position in relation to Britain was made clear in the Balfour Declaration, drawn up at the Imperial Conference of the same year. The Declaration became a law in 1931 with the Statute of Westminster, and the Pact Government’s greatest progress was made in industrial legislation and economy. Its protection of White workers and strict control over industry removed all problems in mines and factories, and these industries grew enormously . The Pact Government managed to keep the white voters happy, and five years later in the 1929 election, they were able to win again - therefore securing a second term, from 1929 to 1934. After the 1929 election Hertzog still gave his Pact partner, the LP, some representation in the new cabinet - with Colonel F. H. P. Creswell keeping the portfolios of Defence and Labour, while H. W. Sampson was named Minister of Posts and Telegraphs. The rest of the cabinet was made up of NP members, who gradually laid more and more stress on republican independence and Afrikaner identity. The Great Depression, from 1930 to 1933, made the government’s rule difficult. Britain left the gold standard on 21 September 1931, and Tielman Roos returned to politics in 1932 to oppose Hertzog in his position to retain the gold standard. His campaign was successful and the government met their demand. Over time, the difference between the NP and SAP became smaller, and in 1933 the two parties merged to form a coalition government. The two parties were named the United Party (UP) in 1934, but D. F. Malan and his Cape NP refused to join. He remained independent to form the new opposition, which was called the Purified National Party (PNP). The outbreak of World War II in 1939 caused an internal split in the UP. Hertzog wanted to remain neutral in the war and by winning a crucial vote in parliament (September 1939), Smuts became prime minister again and brought South Africa into the war on the British (Allied) side. Hertzog then returned to the NP, which was reformed as the Herenigde Nasionale Party (HNP) [Reformed National Party] on 29 Jan 1940. Hertzog was the party’s leader, with Malan as his deputy. NP Ascendancy and Apartheid (1939-1950s) The split decision in 1939 to take South Africa into the war, and the disruption the war effort, caused Afrikaners to be seriously alienated from the UP. By 1948 there was growing irritation with wartime restrictions that were still in place, and living costs had increased sharply. White farmers in the northern provinces were particularly unhappy that Black labourers were leaving farms and moving to the cities, and therefore demanded the strict application of pass laws. In the election of 26 May 1948, D.F. Malan's National Party, in alliance with N.C. Havenga's Afrikaner Party, won with a razor-thin majority of five seats and only 40% of the overall electoral vote. The alliance was formed during the war from General Hertzog's core support Malan said after the election: “Today South Africa belongs to us once more. South Africa is our own for the first time since Union, and may God grant that it will always remain our own.” When Malan said that South Africa “belonged” to the Afrikaners he did not have the white-black struggle in mind, but rather the rivalry between the Afrikaner and the English community. After the 1948 election, The NP that came to power was effectively two parties rolled into one. The one was a party for white supremacy that introduced apartheid and promised the electorate that it would secure the political future of whites; the other was a nationalist party that sought to mobilise the Afrikaner community by appealing to Afrikaans culture i.e. their beliefs, prejudices and moral convictions- establishing a sense of common history, and shared hopes and fears for the future. Immediately after the 1948 election, the government began to remove any remaining symbols of the historic British ascendancy. It abolished British citizenship and the right of appeal to the Privy Council (1950). It scrapped God Save the Queen as one of the naÂtional anthems, removed the Union Jack as one of the national ensigns (1957) and took over the naval base in Simon's Town from the Royal Navy (1957). The removal of these symbols of dual citizenship was seen as a victory for Afrikaner nationalism. The NP's advance was the story of a people on the move, filled with enthusiasm about the 'Afrikaner cause'- putting their imprint on the state, defining its symbols, and giving their schools and universities a pronounced Afrikaans character. Political power steadily enhanced their social self-confidence. In the world of big business Rembrandt, Sanlam, Volkskas and other Afrikaner enterprises soon began to earn the respect of their English rivals. However, apartheid policy steadily marginalised ethnic groups, and undermined their culture of and pride in their achievements. For others it seemed as if the Afrikaners were obsessed with fears about their own survival, and did not care about the damage and the hurt that apartheid inflicted upon others in a far weaker position. The novelist Alan Paton made this comment about Afrikaner nationalism: “It is one of the deep mysteries of Afrikaner nationalist psychology that a Nationalist can observe the highest standards toÂwards his own kind, but can observe an entirely different standard towards others, and more especially if they are not White.” Malan was prime minister from 1948 to 1954, and was directly succeeded by J.G. Strijdom as leader and prime minister. This signalled the new dominance of the Transvaal in the NP caucus. Later, in the 1958 election, the NP won 103 seats and the UP just 53, with H. F. Verwoerd elected as the new Prime Minister. The elected government greatly strengthened white control of the country, and apartheid rested on several bases. The most important were the restriction of all power to Whites, racial classification and racial sex laws. Laws also allocated group areas for each raÂcial community, segregated schools and universities, and eliminated integrated public facilities and sport. Whites were protected in the labour market, and a system of influx control that stemmed from Black urbanization lead to the creation of designated 'homelands' for Blacks. This was the basis for preventing them from demanding rights in the common area (timeline of Apartheid legislation ). Black South Africans had long protested their inferior treatment through organizations such as the African National Congress (ANC; founded in 1912) and the Industrial and Commercial Workers Union of Africa (founded 1919 by Clements Kadalie ). In the 1950s and early 1960s there were various protests against the National Party's policies, involving passive resistance and the burning of passbooks. In 1960, a peaceful anti- pass law protest in Sharpeville (near Johannesburg) ended when police opened fire, massacring 70 protesters and wounding about 190 others. This protest was organized by the Pan-Africanist Congress (an offshoot of the ANC). In the 1960s most leaders (including ANC leaders Nelson Mandela and Walter Sisulu ) who opposed apartheid were either in jail or living in exile, while the government proceeded with its plans to segregate blacks on a more permanent basis. (Liberation Struggle in the 1960s). What the 1948 government meant to the English-speaking White population? While retaining their economic dominance, English-speakers continued to hold the key to future domestic fixed investment, and to foreign fixed investment. By 1948 the per capita income of English-speakers was more than double that of Afrikaners, and their level of eduÂcation was much higher. They also identified with a culture that was vastly richer and more diverse than Afrikaans culture. After the 1948 election the English community in South Africa found itself in the political wilderness. Patrick Duncan , son of a South African governor-general, wrote: “English South Africans are today in the power of their adversaries. They are the only English group of any size in the world today that is, and will remain for some time, a ruled, subordinated minority. They are beginning to know what the great majority of all South Africans have always known - what it is to be second-class citizens in the land of one's birth.” For English-speaking business leaders, the NP victory came as a major shock, as the Smuts government had been ideal for English business. After 1948, English business leaders contributed substantially to the United South African Trust Fund that funded the UP- with a view to unseating the NP government. Ernest Oppenheimer , the magnate controlling the giant conglomerate Anglo American Corporation, was the main donor. However, business was hardly liberal, and this fund refused to back the Liberal Party that Alan Paton had helped to form after the 1953 election - which propagated a programme of a multi-racial democracy based on universal franchise. By the mid-1950s, English business leaders were beginning to accept the status quo, and were working with the government. Manufacturers enthusiastically welcomed the government's policy of promoting growth and boosting import substitution through protection. Mining magnates reaped the benefits of a very cheap, docile labour force, while blaming the government for the system. International reactions to the results of the 1948 election and the introduction of apartheid The result of the 1948 election dismayed Britain, South Africa's principal foreign investor and trading partner. But with the shadow of the Cold War falling over the world, the priority for Western governments was to prevent South Africa, with its minerals and strategic location, from falling under communist influence. The British Labour government under Clement Attlee concluded that this aspect was more important than its revulsion for apartheid. He would soon offer South Africa access to the intelligence secrets of Britain and the United States. In the southern states of America, segregation still held sway. A survey in 1942 found that only 2% of whites favoured school integration, only 12% residential integration, and only one-fifth thought the intelligence of blacks was on the same level as that of whites. Even among northern whites only 30-40% supported racial integration. The West did not insist on a popular democracy in South Africa, arguing that such a system was impossible for the time being. During the 1950s it was not uncommon for Western leaders to express racist views. In 1951 Herbert Morrison, foreign secretary in the British Labour government, regarded independence for African colonies as comparÂable to “giving a child often a latch-key, a bank account and a shotgun”. Still, the defeat of Nazi Germany and the horror of the Holocaust had discredited racial ideologies, and speeded up pressure for racial integration, particularly in the United States. The granting of independence to India in 1947 was a major turning point in world history that intensified the pressure to grant subordinated ethnic groups their freedom. The General Assembly of the United Nations became an effective platform for the nations of the Third World to vent their anger over centuries of Western domination, and apartheid soon became the focus of their wrath. The Republic of South Africa and Racial Strife (1960-1984) One of these goals was achieved in 1960, when the White population voted in a referendum to sever South Africa's ties with the British Monarchy, and establish a republic. On 5 October 1960 South African whites were asked: “Do you support a republic for the Union?”. The result showed just over 52 per cent in favour of the change. The opposition United Party actively campaigned for a “No” vote, while the smaller Progressive Party appealed to supporters of the proposed change to “reject this republic”, arguing that South Africa's membership of the Commonwealth, with which it had privileged trade links, would be threatened. The National Party had not ruled out continued membership after the country became a republic, but the Commonwealth now had new Asian and African members who saw the apartheid regime's membership as an affront to the organisation's democratic principles. Consequently, South Africa left the Commonwealth on becoming a republic. When the Republic of South Africa was declared on May 31, 1961, Queen Elizabeth II ceased to be head of state, and the last Governor General of the Union took office as the first State President. Charles Robberts Swart , the last Governor-General, was sworn in as the first State President (see “People”section for more detail about this position). The State President performed mainly ceremonial duties and the ruling National Party decided against having an executive presidency, instead adopting a minimalist approach - a conciliatory gesture to English-speaking whites who were opposed to a republic. Like Governor-Generals before them, State Presidents were retired National Party ministers, and consequently, white, Afrikaner, and male. Therefore, HF Verwoerd remained on as the Prime Minister of the country. In 1966, Prime Minister Verwoerd was assassinated by a discontented White government employee, and B.J. Vorster became the new Prime Minister. From the late 1960s, the Vorster government began attempts to start a dialogue on racial and other matters with independent African nations. These attempts met with little success, except for the establishment of diplomatic relations with Malawi and the adjacent nations of Lesotho, Botswana, and Swaziland - all of which were economically dependent on South Africa. South Africa was strongly opposed to the establishment of Black rule in the White-dominated countries of Angola, Mozambique, and Rhodesia, and gave military assistance to Whites there. However, by late 1974, with independence for Angola and Mozambique under majority rule imminent, South Africa faced the prospect of further isolation from the international community - as one of the few remaining White-ruled nations of Africa. In the early 1970s, increasing numbers of whites (especially students) protested apartheid, and the National party itself was divided, largely on questions of race relations, into the somewhat liberal verligte [Afrikaans=enlightened] faction and the conservative verkrampte [Afrikaans,=narrow-minded] group. In the early 1970s, black workers staged strikes and violently revolted against their inferior conditions. South Africa invaded Angola in 1975 in an attempt to crush mounting opposition in exile, but the action was a complete failure. In 1976, open rebellion erupted in the black township of Soweto, in protest against the use of Afrikaans as the medium of instruction in Black schools. Over the next few months, rioting spread to other large cities of South Africa, which resulted in the deaths of more than 600 Black people. In 1977, the death of Black Consciousness leader Steve Biko in police custody (under suspicious circumstances) prompted protests and sanctions. The National Party increased its parliamentary majority in almost every election between 1948 and 1977, and despite all the protest against apartheid, the National Party got its best-ever result in the 1977 elections with support of 64.8% of the White voters and 134 seats in parliament out of 165. Pieter Willem Botha became prime minister in 1978, and pledged to uphold apartheid as well as improve race relations. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, the government granted “independence” to four homelands: Transkei (1976), Bophuthatswana (1977), Venda (1979), and Ciskei (1981). In the early 1980s, as the regime hotly debated the extent of reforms, Botha began to reform some of the apartheid policies. He legalised interracial marriages and multiracial political parties, and relaxed the Group Areas Act. In 1984, a new constitution was enacted which provided for a Tricameral Parliament. The new Parliament included the House of Representatives, comprised of Coloureds; the House of Delegates, comprised of Indians; and the House of Assembly, comprised of Whites. This system left the Whites with more seats in the Parliament than the Indians and Coloureds combined. Blacks violently protested being shut out of the system, and the ANC and PAC, both of whom had traditionally used non-violent means to protest inequality, began to advocate more extreme measures (Umkhonto we Sizwe and the turn to the armed struggle) . Regime Unravels (1985-1991) As attacks against police stations and other government installations increased, the regime announced an indefinite state of emergency in 1985. In 1986, Anglican Bishop Desmond Tutu , a black South African leader opposing apartheid, addressed the United Nations and urged further sanctions against South Africa. A wave of strikes and riots marked the 10th anniversary of the Soweto uprising in 1987. In 1989, in the midst of rising political instability, growing economic problems and diplomatic isolation, President Botha fell ill and was succeeded, first as party leader, then as president, by F. W. de Klerk . Although a conservative, de Klerk realised the impracticality of maintaining apartheid forever, and soon after taking power, he decided that it would be better to negotiate while there was still time to reach a compromise, than to hold out until forced to negotiate on less favourable terms. He therefore persuaded the National Party to enter into negotiations with representatives of the Black community. Late in 1989, the National Party won the most bitterly contested election in decades, pledging to negotiate an end to the apartheid system that it had established. Early in 1990 de Klerk's government began relaxing apartheid restrictions. The African National Congress (ANC) and other liberation organisations were legalized and Nelson Mandela was released after twenty-seven years of imprisonment. In late 1991 the Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA) , a multiracial forum set up by de Klerk and Mandela, began efforts to negotiate a new constitution, and a transition to a multiracial democracy with majority rule. In March 1992, voters endorsed constitutional reform efforts by a wide margin in a referendum open only to Whites. However, there was continued violent protests from opponents of the process, especially by supporters of Chief Mangosuthu Buthelezi , leader of the Zulu-based Inkatha movement - with the backing and sometimes active participation of the South African security forces. The New South Africa and the New National Party (1993-2005) Despite obstacles and delays, an interim constitution was completed in 1993. This ended nearly three centuries of white rule in South Africa, and marked the eradication of white-minority rule on the African continent. A 32-member multiparty transitional government council was formed with blacks in the majority, and in April 1994, days after the Inkatha Freedom party ended an electoral boycott, the republic's first multiracial election was held. The ANC won an overwhelming victory, and Nelson Mandela became president. South Africa also rejoined the Commonwealth in 1994 and relinquished its last hold in Namibia, by ceding the exclave of Walvis Bay . In 1994 and 1995, the last vestiges of apartheid were dismantled, and a new national constitution was approved and adopted in May 1996. It provided for a strong presidency and eliminated provisions guaranteeing White-led and other minority party representation in the government. De Klerk and the National party supported the new charter, despite disagreement over some provisions. Shortly afterward, de Klerk and the National party quit the national unity government to become part of the opposition- the New National party after 1998. The new government faced the daunting task of trying to address the inequities produced by decades of apartheid, while promoting privatization and a favourable investment climate. The liberal Democratic party became the leading opposition party, and in 2000 it joined forces with the New National Party to form the Democratic Alliance (DA). That coalition, however, survived only until late 2001, when the New National party left to form a coalition with the ANC. Parliamentary elections in April 2004, resulted in a resounding victory for the ANC, which won nearly 70% of the vote, while the DA remained the largest opposition party and increased its share of the vote. The new parliament subsequently re-elected President Mbeki. As a result of its poor showing, the New National party merged with the ANC, and voted to disband in April 2005. Further Reading What won the NP the 1948 election? by Hermann Giliomee, PoliticsWeb, 22 October 2020 … parties that advocated close cooperation between Afrikaners and persons of British descent. The founder of the NP, General JBM Hertzog, was a member of the Union Government, and was fiercely and publicly nationalistic. This offended … did not have a regular mouthpiece to promote its policies and campaigns like the SAP’s Ons Land newspaper in Cape Town and De Volkstem in Pretoria. Die Burger newspaper was therefore created in the Cape on 26 July 1915 for this specific purpose, … Act no 21 of 1923). The Afrikaner opposition to WW1 proved to strengthen the, particularly after the death of GeneralDelaRey (Afrikaners blamed Smuts and Botha). The death of General Louis Botha in 1919 pushed away more of the SAP supporters, … Christiaan Rudolf De Wet Christiaan de Wet was born at Leeuwkop near Smithfield, Orange Free State, on 7 October 1854. He received little formal education, spending his days helping his father in the management of the farm Nuwejaarsfontein, near the present town of Dewetsdorp. At the age of nineteen, he married Cornelia Margaretha Kruger, a woman of strong character. They were to have sixteen children. Upon the annexation of the Transvaal in 1877, he moved to the Vredefort district in the Orange Free State, then to Weltevreden near the present village of Koppies, and from there to Rietfontein in the Heidelberg district (Transvaal), in 1880. De Wet was twenty-seven when the First Anglo-Boer War broke out in 1880. He fought with the Heidelberg Commando, taking part in the Battle of Laing's Nek, where he displayed courage at Ingogo and in the storming of Majuba in early 1881. After the war and the restoration of Transvaal independence, he was elected a veld-cornet. In 1882, the family moved again, this time to the farm Suikerboskop in the Lydenburg district. Elected to the Transvaal Volksraad in 1885, he only attended one session because he decided to buy his father's farm, Nuwejaarsfontein, and the family moved back to the Orange Free State. In 1896, he was to move once more, this time to the farm Rooipoort in the Heilbron district. In 1889, he was elected to the Free State's Volksraad and represented Upper Modder River until 1898. Expecting the outbreak of war in 1899, De Wet, then forty-five, prepared for the hardships to come. Among other things, he bought Fleur, the white Arab horse that was to carry him steadfastly through many battles and across thousands of miles on the veld. On 2 October 1899, De Wet and his eldest son, Kotie, were called up as ordinary burghers in the Heilbron commando. De Wet's sons, Izak and Christiaan enlisted as volunteers and the four of them reported for duty under Commandant Lucas Steenekamp. In March and April 1900 De Wet launched an offensive that heralded the Boer revival. Attacking south-eastwards, in the guerrilla style for which he was to become legendary. In order to decide whether to continue the war or to accept the British terms the Boer leaders called a conference of sixty representatives of the Transvaal and Orange Free State to be held at Vereeniging on 15 May. With Steyn ill, De Wet, as Acting President, represented the Free State. De Wet said he was prepared to carry on the struggle beside President Steyn to the bitter end. The Treaty of Vereeniging was the result of the Boer discussions. With his family, De Wet returned to his ruined farm, Rooipoort. In July 1902, leaving his wife and children in a tent on the farm, he left for Europe with Botha and De la Rey to try to raise funds for the widows and orphans impoverished by the war. On board ship, the Reverend J D Kestell assisted him in the prodigious effort of writing his war memoirs, De Strijd Tusschen Boer en Brit (subsequently published in English as Three Years War). The book was an overwhelming success and was later translated into at least six languages.On his return, De Wet played an important part in the movement to counter Milnerism in the Free State, which culminated in the establishment of the Orangia Unie in 1906. When the Orange River Sovereignty was granted self-Government in 1907, De Wet was elected the member for Vredefort and became Abraham Fischer's Minister of Agriculture. He was a delegate to the National Convention of 1908-09, which met to decide on the Constitution of the Union of South Africa. He left politics after Union in 1910 and went to live at Allanvale, near Memel, where he was nominated to the Union Defence Board. A supporter of Hertzog, his fiery personality came to the fore when he made his famous 'dunghill' speech in Pretoria on 28 December 1912. The following year he resigned from the Defence Board. In 1914, when De Wet and Hertzog founded the National Party, the political divisions between Afrikaners grew wider. In mid-August 1914, a number of prominent Boer War leaders were in contact with each other. They were: General de la Rey, now a Government senator, Lieutenant-Colonel 'Manie' Maritz, who was in command of the Union forces near the border of South West Africa, General Beyers, the commander of the Active Citizen Force, General Kemp, the commander of the Potchefstroom military camp, and General De Wet. Wanting no part in 'England's wars', they opposed South African participation in World War I and the proposed invasion of German South West Africa by South African forces. According to subsequent statements of the participants, these leaders saw an opportunity of regaining the independence they had so dearly lost twelve years earlier and were planning a coup d'etat, which was to take place on the South West African border, in the Free State and at Potchefstroom. Beyers had arranged to meet Governor Seitz of German South West Africa at the border. De la Rey was to address the soldiers in the camp at Potchefstroom. And Maritz was to defect to the Germans with his men. Beyers and Kemp both resigned their commissions. On 15 September Beyers set out to drive to Potchefstroom with General J.H. de la Rey. When they failed to stop at a roadblock at Langlaagte, a trooper opened fire and De la Rey was shot dead. After speaking at De la Rey's funeral in Lichtenburg, De Wet took part in a protest meeting in the town the following day. It was decided that he and others would try to persuade Botha and Smuts to abandon their plans to attack German South West Africa. But the deputation achieved nothing. Soon after De la Rey's funeral, Maritz defected to the German side with more than a thousand men. Kemp joined him. At Steenbokfontein on 29 October 1914, Beyers issued a declaration on behalf of himself and De Wet that they were to stage an armed protest. Afrikaners flocked to them, intending to march on Pretoria. The rebellion spread, inspired by De Wet who occupied towns and seized property in the north-eastern Free State where he commanded a great following. In total, more than 11,400 poorly equipped men rebelled. They were doomed to failure. Martial law was declared and Government troops were swiftly mustered to suppress the revolt. It took Botha one month. At Allemanskraal, De Wet's son Danie and several other rebels were killed. De Wet, who was grieving bitterly over his son, occupied Winburg. At Mushroom Valley, north-east of Bloemfontein, Botha completely surprised the poorly armed rebels. A short sharp skirmish showed they were no match for Botha and the Government troops. Twenty-two rebels and six of Botha's men were killed; the rest were captured or fled in every direction. With his family, De Wet returned to his ruined farm, Rooipoort. In July 1902, leaving his wife and children in a tent on the farm, he left for Europe with Botha and De la Rey to try to raise funds for the widows and orphans impoverished by the war. On board ship, the Reverend J D Kestell assisted him in the prodigious effort of writing his war memoirs, De Strijd Tusschen Boer en Brit (subsequently published in English as Three Years War). The book was an overwhelming success and was later translated into at least six languages. On his return, De Wet played an important part in the movement to counter Milnerism in the Free State, which culminated in the establishment of the Orangia Unie in 1906. When the Orange River Sovereignty was granted self-Government in 1907, De Wet was elected the member for Vredefort and became Abraham Fischer's Minister of Agriculture. He was a delegate to the National Convention of 1908-09, which met to decide on the Constitution of the Union of South Africa. He left politics after Union in 1910 and went to live at Allanvale, near Memel, where he was nominated to the Union Defence Board. A supporter of Hertzog, his fiery personality came to the fore when he made his famous 'dunghill' speech in Pretoria on 28 December 1912. The following year he resigned from the Defence Board. In 1914, when De Wet and Hertzog founded the National Party, the political divisions between Afrikaners grew wider 1, 400 poorly equipped men rebelled. They were doomed to failure. Ever the master of evasive tactics, De Wet managed to escape, only to be engaged in a fierce skirmish at Virginia station. Seeing it was useless to continue the fight, he instructed his burghers to accept Botha's favourable amnesty terms, while he and a handful of faithful followers headed towards the Kalahari Desert in a bid to join Maritz in South West Africa. On 30 November 1914, at Waterbury farm near Vryburg, an informer told Colonel G F Jordaan that the exhausted De Wet and his companions were hiding out in the district. Coen Brits set off after him with a posse of motorcars. For the first time in his life, De Wet was taken prisoner. "It was the motorcars that beat me," he said. And on hearing that his captors were Afrikaners, he remarked with a wry smile, "Well, thank God for that. Then the English never captured me!" De Wet was taken at once to the Johannesburg Fort, where together with other rebels he was imprisoned. Special courts were set up to try the rebels. De Wet got six years and a fine of £2,000. He expressed surprise at the leniency of his sentence. Within a short time the fine was collected from voluntary contributions, and after six months he was granted a reprieve. But imprisonment had seriously undermined his health. Shortly after his release, De Wet sold his farm Allanvale and settled near Edenburg for a few years. Then he moved for the last time to the farm Klipfontein, near Dewetsdorp. Although he was poor and a shadow of his former self, his spirit remained forceful; and an incessant flow of visitors found their way to his door to pay their respects to him. But, because of his illness, he made few public appearances. Nevertheless, when ex-President Steyn died in November 1916, De Wet paid tribute to his old friend and comrade-a-arms in a famous oration at the graveside. As he aged, De Wet became politically moderate, to the extent that he advised the inclusion of English-speaking citizens in political affairs; but he never forgave those who had collaborated during the Boer War De Wet progressively weakened and at length, on 3 February 1922, he died on his farm. General Smuts, who had become Prime Minister, cabled his widow: 'A prince and a great man has fallen today.' De Wet was given a state funeral in Bloemfontein and buried next to President Steyn and Emily Hobhouse at the foot of the memorial to the women and children who died in the concentration camps. On the hundredth anniversary of his birth, a bronze equestrian statue, by Coert Steynberg, was unveiled at the Raadzaal in Bloemfontein. Anglo-Boer War 2: The Battle of Silkaatsnek begins 11 July 1900 References Cloete, P G (2000). The Anglo-Boer War: a chronology. ABC Press, Cape Town, pg 169.| Wallis, F. (2000). Nuusdagboek: feite en fratse oor 1000 jaar, Kaapstad: Human & Rousseau).| Kormorant, (2009), ‘The Battle of Silkaatsnek 11 July 1990 - ARMAGEDDON OF THE MOUNTAIN ’, from Kormorant, 18 February [Online], Available at www.kormorant.co.za [Accessed: 10 July 2013] There is a pass in the Magaliesberg known as Silkaatsnek It was here that the two 12-pounder guns of 'O' Battery, Royal Horse Artillery (RHA), were placed and ultimately captured in the first battle of Silkaatsnek on 11 July 1900. After the fall of Pretoria on 5 June 1900, the British forces found themselves in command of most strategic points, but with enormously extended lines of communication. In the then 'Western Transvaal', communications were maintained through huge tracts of inhospitable country, which were difficult to fight in; rough hills, tenacious bushes and hard stony ground with infrequent sources of water, especially in the southern winter. Conditions were ideal for guerrilla warfare conducted by tough, unsophisticated fighters who were brought up as horsemen and marksmen, who knew the country intimately and who could adapt themselves to harsh conditions using the topography to their advantage. 11 July 1900 marked the beginning of this type of war with four Boer actions, of which the action of Silkaatsnek was but one of three successes, with resultant timely encouragement to Boer morale in the Western Transvaal, and dismay amongst English garrisons and outposts. General De la Rey had commanded the northern sector of the Boer forces at Diamond Hill. After this battle, De la Rey, who also commanded the Western Transvalers, fell back to the Bronkhorstspruit-Balmoral area. On lO July, De la Rey was travelling north of Silkaatsnek towards Rustenburg with some 200 men, when his scouts brought information that the Nek was lightly held and that the commanding shoulders of the Nek had been ignored. He decided to attack. De la Rey launched a three-pronged attack on the small British force commanded by Colonel HR Roberts. De la Rey personally lead the frontal assault from the north and sent two groups of 200 men to scale both shoulders of the pass, where the British had placed small pickÂets. The burghers surrounded and captured two British field-guns, but the British put up a gallant fight that lasted the entire day. Colonel Roberts surrendered the next morning. 23 British troops were killed, Colonel Roberts and 44 others were wounded and 189 (including the wounded) were captured. The Boers casualties are unknown, but De la Rey's nephew and his adjutant were both killed, and a known 8 men were wounded. The Boers captured two field-guns, a machine gun, a numÂber of rifles ammunition. De la Rey used these weapons to rearm several burghers who returned to duty. Read SAHO's Anglo-Boer war feature. Dwarsvlei, near Pretoria The Farm Dwarsvlei is situated 15 kilometres North of Krugersdorp, on the road to Hekpoort, past Sterkfontein of Archaeological fame. It is still Owned and Farmed by Descendants of the Oosthuizen family, the Voortrekkers who first Settled there. It was the scene of at least two almost forgotten clashes between the Boers and the British during the Anglo-Boer War (1899 - 1902) The first incident which took place here, on 11 July 1900, was a fierce Battle in which three Victoria Crosses were earned in circumstances initially remarkably similar to the Battle of Colenso, seven Months earlier, 15 December 1899. Amongst the Boer casualties was their Commander, Sarel Oosthuizen. The engagement was described by Major-General Smith-Dorrien as their 'most trying fight of the whole war'. Then, on 9 October 1900, a captain in the Royal Scots Fusiliers, Hugh Montague Trenchard, was ambushed and critically wounded outside the door of the Farmhouse in the second incident which occurred on the Farm, during the War. Trenchard survived to become 'one of the few great men, who can be said to have changed the course of History'. He became 'the father of the Royal Air Force and the Architect of modern air power', dictating the role of Aerial Bombing Warfare in both the First and Second World Wars. He fought Economic cuts to keep the Air Force, in existence between the wars and it is said that, 'without him, there would have been no Battle of Britain'. Today, only a short drive from Johannesburg, the tarred road to Hekpoort passes over the Battlefield of Dwarsvlei, but there is no indication of the events that took place there a Century ago. Not even a cartridge case remains to be seen, although the British alone fired 38 000 rounds that Day. The Farm and the Slope of the Witwatersberg to the North are now covered with invasive Wattle Trees, but the two Kopjes and the Hollow, beyond them remains open Veld, as it was a Century ago. Thus, the Panorama of the Battlefield can be easily surveyed. The positioning of the roads has changed slightly over time with the Hekpoort road to be to the West of the Kopjes, while the present tarred road follows the path between them taken by the guns. The Battle of Dwarsvlei, 11 July 1900- It was mid-Winter on the Highveld, Pretoria had fallen to the British, and General de la Rey had gathered the Burghers North of the Magaliesberg for the start of the guerrilla phase of the war. On that day, 11 July 1900, the British were engaged at four Places: Witpoort, East of Pretoria; Onderstepoort to the North; and Zilikat's Nek (Silkaatsnek) and Dwarsvlei in the West. The results of the actions at the last three sites was disastrous. The Gordon Highlanders and Shropshire Regiment under the Command of Major-General Smith-Dorrien were to leave Krugersdorp for Hekpoort in order to join the Scots Greys from Pretoria and link up with Baden-Powell at Olifantsnek, South of Rustenburg. The Force consisted of about 1 335 men, 597 Gordon Highlanders, 680 Shropshires, 34 Imperial Yeomanry with a Colt Gun, two Guns of the 78th Battery, three Ambulances and forty Wagons. The Track they followed is in very much in the same position as the Tarred Road is today, topping a Rise after about 15 km before dropping through an open Hollow and rising again to cross the Witwatersberg beyond. Here the Boers, mainly from the Krugersdorp Commando under Sarel Oosthuizen, opened fire on them from the high ground. The guns advanced between the two Kopjes to the open Ground and opened fire on the opposing Ridges while the Gordons took up positions on the Kopjes. As at Colenso, the Horse-Drawn Artillery, in their eagerness to come into action, had left the Infantry behind and found themselves in an exposed Position. They sent the limbers 600 Yards (548 metres) to the Rear, instead of taking advantage of the perfect cover provided by the Kopjes. The deadly Boer fire, from only 800 Yards (731 metres) away, soon took its toll and within half an hour, fourteen of the seventeen Gunners had been hit and the guns had been silenced. The section commander, Lieutenant Turner, although wounded three times, continued for some time to fire one of the guns himself. One of the limber teams, in endeavouring to remove a gun, had four horses shot and gave up the attempt, while the horses of the other had taken fright and bolted. Captain W E Gordon, with some Gordon Highlanders, then made a gallant but ultimately unsuccessful attempt to manhandle the guns. Captain D R Younger and three men were killed and seventeen were wounded in the attempt. For his efforts, Captain Gordon was awarded the Victoria Cross, while Captain Younger's award was only gazetted on 8 August 1902, as Posthumous Awards were not made at the time. Corporal J F Mackay had been recommended for the Victoria Cross at Doornkop on 29 May 1900 as well as on three other occasions, including Dwarsvlei, where he had dashed out from the safety of the right Kopje, hoisted Captain Younger on his back, and carried him behind the left Kopje under the concentrated fire of several hundred rifles. As the expected Scots Greys and two guns of the Royal Horse Artillery were pinned down and eventually Captured by De la Rey at Zilikat's Nek, Lord Roberts Signalled from Pretoria at 13.25 that the operation was to be cancelled and that the force must retire to Krugersdorp. Orders were issued for the withdrawal, but Lieutenant Turner, upon hearing of them from where he lay wounded next to the headquarters, burst out, 'Oh, you can't leave my guns!' Then, on Colonel Macbean's assurance that the Gordons could hold on all day, Smith-Dorrien cancelled the order. Skirmishing continued for the rest of the Day and the Transport, HQ and Ambulance all came under fire. At dusk, the Boers, with shouts of 'Voorwaarts, mense, voorwaarts!' (Forward, people, forward!), attempted to capture the guns. They were driven off with considerable losses, including their leader, Sarel Oosthuizen. He was wounded in the thigh and Died a Month later, on 14 August 1900. The British guns were recovered and both sides withdrew from the Field, the British reaching Krugersdorp weary but in good spirits in the early Hours of the following Morning. A week later, the British resumed their Mission, Reinforced by Lord Methuen's force, and passed the same Area on 19 July, observing a few Boers who kept their Distance and put up but slight resistance later. In the Krugersdorp Cemetery, Captain Younger's Headstone stands thirty paces away from the Memorial stone to vecht-generaal Sarel Oosthuizen and his younger brother, korporaal Izak Johannes Oosthuizen (who died on 20 April 1902, a few days before the end of the war). The Battle of Dwarsvlei has also been referred to as: 'Leeuhoek, Door Boschfontein and Onrus', all being names of Farms in the Area, that the action took place in that day. References http://samilitaryhistory.org/vol113js.html Further Reading https://www.sahistory.org.za/.../anglo-boer-war-2-boer-general-sf-oosthuizen -dies-wounds-received-dwarsvlei-11-07-1900 https://www.sahistory.org.za/.../sterkfontein-caves-krugersdorp-within-cradle- humankind-world-heritage-site https://www.sahistory.org.za/.../second-anglo-boer-war-1899-1902 https://www.sahistory.org.za/.../a-tribute-to-the-pioneers-voortrekkers-of-the- transvaal https://www.sahistory.org.za/.../timeline-world-war-ii-1939-1945 https://www.sahistory.org.za/place/preller-rondawels-pelindaba https://www.sahistory.org.za/place/krugersdorp https://www.sahistory.org.za/place/kitson-steam-train-krugersdorp Women and Children in White Concentration Camps during the Anglo-Boer War, 1900-1902 Due to the fact that Black People were detained in separate camps, the issue of Black Concentration Camps is dealt with in another chronology. Boer women, children and men unfit for service were herded together in concentration camps by the British forces during Anglo-Boer War 2 (1899-1902). The first two of these camps (refugee camps) were established to house the families of burghers who had surrendered voluntarily, but very soon, with families of combatant burgers driven forcibly into camps established all over the country, the camps ceased to be refugee camps and became concentration camps. The abhorrent conditions in these camps caused the death of 4 177 women, 22 074 children under sixteen and 1 676 men, mainly those too old to be on commando, notwithstanding the efforts of an English lady, Emily Hobhouse , who tried her best to make the British authorities aware of the plight of especially the women and children in the camps. 1900 September, Major-Gen J.G. Maxwell announces that "... camps for burghers who voluntarily surrender are being formed at Pretoria and Bloemfontein." This signals the start of what was to evolve into the notorious Concentration Camp Policy. 22 September, As result of a military notice on this date, the first two 'refugee' camps are established at Pretoria and Bloemfontein. Initially the aim was to protect the families of burghers who had surrendered voluntarily and their families by the institution of these camps. As the families of combatant burghers were also driven into these and other camps, they ceased to be 'refugee' camps and became 'concentration' camps. 20 December, A proclamation issued by Lord Kitchener states that all burghers surrendering voluntarily, will be allowed to live with their families in Government Laagers until the end of the war and their stock and property will be respected and paid for. 21 December, Contrary to the announced intention, Lord Kitchener states in a memorandum to general officers the advantages of interning all women, children and men unfit for military services, also Blacks living on Boer farms, as this will be "the most effective method of limiting the endurance of the guerrillas... "The women and children brought in should be divided in two categories, viz.: 1st. Refugees, and the families of Neutrals, non-combatants, and surrendered Burghers. 2nd. Those whose husbands, fathers and sons are on Commando. The preference in accommodation, etc. should of course be given to the first class. With regard to Natives, it is not intended to clear ... locations, but only such and their stock as are on Boer farms." Second Boer War - Bloemfontein Concentration Camp Image source 1901 21 January, Emily Hobhouse, an English philanthropist and social worker who tried to improve the plight of women and children in the camps, obtains permission to visit concentration camps. Lord Kitchener, however, disallows visits north of Bloemfontein. 24 January, Emily Hobhouse visits Bloemfontein concentration camps and is appalled by the conditions. Due to limited time and resources, she does not visit the camp for Blacks, although she urges the Guild of Loyal Women to do so. 30 January, Pushing panic-stricken groups of old men, women and children, crowded in wagons and preceded by huge flocks of livestock in front of them, French's drive enters the south-eastern ZAR (Transvaal). 31 January, Mrs Isie Smuts, wife of Gen. J.C. Smuts, is sent to Pietermaritzburg and placed under house arrest by the British military authorities, despite her pleas to be sent to concentration camps like other Boer women.Concentration camps have been established at Aliwal North, Brandfort, Elandsfontein, Heidelberg, Howick, Kimberley, Klerksdorp, Viljoensdrift, Waterfall North and Winburg. 25 February, A former member of the Free State Volksraad, H.S. Viljoen, and five other prisoners are set free from the Green Point Camp near Cape Town. They are sent to visit Free State concentration camps with the intention of influencing the women in the camps to persuade their husbands to lay down their arms. They are met with very little success. 27 February, Discriminatory food rations - 1st class rations for the families of 'hands-uppers' and 2nd class for the families of fighting burghers or those who refuse to work for the British - are discontinued in the 'Transvaal' concentration camps. 28 February, Concentration camps have been established at Kromellenboog, Middelburg, Norvalspont, Springfontein, Volksrust, and Vredefort Road.At the Middelburg conference between Supreme Commander Lord Kitchener and Commandant-General Louis Botha, Kitchener comments to Lord Roberts, now Commander-in Chief at the War Office in London: "They [referring to the Burghers S.K.] evidently do not like their women being brought in and I think it has made them more anxious for peace." The conference is discussing terms of a possible peace treaty.Sir Alfred Milner leaves Cape Town for Johannesburg to take up his duties as administrator of the 'new colonies'. 1 March, Concentration camps in the 'Orange River' and 'Transvaal' Colonies are transferred to civil control under Sir Alfred Milner. 4 March, Emily Hobhouse visits the Springfontein concentration camp. 6 March, Discriminatory food rations are also discontinued in the 'Orange River Colony' camps. 8 March, Emily Hobhouse visits the Norvalspont concentration camp. 12 March, Emily Hobhouse visits the Kimberley concentration camp. 6 April, Emily Hobhouse returns to Kimberley 9 April, Emily Hobhouse visits the Mafeking concentration camp. 12 April, Emily Hobhouse witnesses the clearing of Warrenton and the dispatch of people in open coal trucks. 13 April, Emily Hobhouse returns to Kimberley, witnessing the arrival of the people removed from Warrenton at the Kimberley camp, where there are only 25 tents available for 240 people. 20 April, The towns of Parys and Vredefort and many outlying farms have been cleared of inhabitants and supplies. The women and children have been removed to concentration camps. 21 April, Emily Hobhouse arrives in Bloemfontein. 23 April, Sir Alfred Milner refuses to issue a permit to Emily Hobhouse authorising her to travel north of Bloemfontein. 4 May, Emily Hobhouse arrives in Cape Town. 7 May, Emily Hobhouse leaves for Britain after an extended fact-finding tour of the concentration camps. 14 June, Speaking at a dinner party of the National Reform Union in England, Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman, leader of the Liberal opposition, says the war in South Africa is carried on by methods of barbarism. 17 June, David Lloyd-George in England condemns the concentration camps and the horrors inflicted on women and children in the camps in South Africa. He warns, "A barrier of dead children's bodies will rise between the British and Boer races in South Africa." Emily Hobhouse tells the story of the young Lizzie van Zyl who died in the Bloemfontein concentration camp: She was a frail, weak little child in desperate need of good care. Yet, because her mother was one of the "undesirables" due to the fact that her father neither surrendered nor betrayed his people, Lizzie was placed on the lowest rations and so perished with hunger that, after a month in the camp, she was transferred to the new small hospital. Here she was treated harshly. The English disposed doctor and his nurses did not understand her language and, as she could not speak English, labeled her an idiot although she was mentally fit and normal. One day she dejectedly started calling for her mother, when a Mrs Botha walked over to her to console her. She was just telling the child that she would soon see her mother again, when she was brusquely interrupted by one of the nurses who told her not to interfere with the child as she was a nuisance. Quote from Stemme uit die Verlede ("Voices from the Past") - a collection of sworn statements by women who were detained in the concentration camps during the Second Boer War (1899-1902). Image source 18 June, Emily Hobhouse's report on concentration camps appear under the title, "To the S.A. Distress Fund, Report of a visit to the camps of women and children in the Cape and Orange River Colonies". Summarising the reasons for the high fatality rate, she writes, "Numbers crowded into small tents: some sick, some dying, occasionally a dead one among them; scanty rations dealt out raw; lack of fuel to cook them; lack of water for drinking, for cooking, for washing; lack of soap, brushes and other instruments of personal cleanliness; lack of bedding or of beds to keep the body off the bare earth; lack of clothing for warmth and in many cases for decency ..." Her conclusion is that the whole system is cruel and should be abolished. 26 June, Lord Kitchener, in a telegram to Milner: "I fear there is little doubt the war will now go on for considerable time unless stronger measures are taken ... Under the circumstances I strongly urge sending away wives and families and settling them somewhere else. Some such unexpected measure on our part is in my opinion essential to bring war to a rapid end." 27 June, The British War Department promises to look into Emily Hobhouse's suggestions regarding improvements to the concentration camps. 30 June, The official camp population is 85 410 for the White camps and the deaths reported for June are 777. 15 July, Dr K. Franks, the camp doctor at the Mafeking concentration camp reports that the camp is "overwhelmed" by 1 270 women and children brought in after sweeps on the western ZAR (Transvaal). Lack of facilities ads to the hardships encountered by the new arrivals. 16 July, The British Colonial Office announces the appointment of a Ladies Commission to investigate the concentration camps in South Africa. The commission, whose members are reputed to be impartial, is made up as follows:Chairlady Mrs Millicent G. Fawcett, who has recently criticised Emily Hobhouse in the Westminster Gazette; Dr Jane Waterson, daughter of a British general, who recently wrote against "the hysterical whining going on in England" while "we feed and pamper people who had not even the grace to say thank you for the care bestowed on them"; Lady Anne Knox, wife of Gen. Knox, who is presently serving in South Africa; Nursing sister Katherine Brereton, who has served in a Yoemanry Hospital in South Africa; Miss Lucy Deane, a government factory inspector on child welfare; Dr the Hon Ella Scarlett, a medical doctor. One of the doctors is to marry a concentration camp official before the end of their tour. 20 July, Commenting on confiscation of property and banishment of families, St John Brodrick, British secretary of State for War, writes to Kitchener: "... Your other suggestion of sending the Boer women to St Helena, etc., and telling their husbands that they would never return, seems difficult to work out. We cannot permanently keep 16,000 men in ring fences and they are not a marketable commodity in other lands ..." 25 July, Since 25 June, Emily Hobhouse has addressed twenty-six public meetings on concentration camps, raising money to improve conditions. 26 July, Emily Hobhouse again writes to Brodrick asking for reasons for the War Department's refusal to include her in the Ladies Commission. If she cannot go, "it was due to myself to convey to all interested that the failure to do so was due to the Government". 27 July, St John Rodrick replies to Emily Hobhouse's letter, "The only consideration in the selection of ladies to visit the Concentration Camps, beyond their special capacity for such work, was that they should be, so far as is possible, removed from the suspicion of partiality to the system adopted or the reverse." 31 July, The officially recorded camp population is 93 940 for the White camps and the deaths for July stands at 1 412. 16 August, General De la Rey protests to the British against the mistreatment of women and children. 20 August, Col. E.C. Ingouville-Williams' column transports Gen. De la Rey's mother to the Klerksdorp concentration camp. A member of the Cape Mounted Rifles notes in his diary: "She is 84 years old. I gave her some milk, jam, soup, etc. as she cannot eat hard tack and they have nothing else. We do not treat them as we ought to." 31 August, The officially recorded camp population for White camps is 105 347 and the camp fatalities for August stand at 1 878. 13 September, The Merebank Refugee Camp is established near Durban in an attempt to reduce the camp population in the Republics. Its most famous inmates are to be Mrs De Wet and her children. 30 September, Cornelius Broeksma is executed by an English firing squad in Johannesburg after having been found guilty of breaking the oath of neutrality and inciting others to do the same. A fund is started in Holland for his family and for this purpose a postcard with a picture of himself and his family is sold, bearing the inscription: "Cornelius Broeksma, hero and martyr in pity's cause. Shot by the English on 30th September 1901, because he refused to be silent about the cruel suffering in the women's camps."The officially recorded camp population of the White camps is 109 418 and the monthly deaths for September stand at 2 411. 1 October, Emily Hobhouse again urges the Minister of War, "in the name of the little children whom I have watched suffer and die" to implement improvements in the concentration camps. 26 October, As the commandoes in the Bethal district, Transvaal, become wise to Benson's night attacks, his success rate declines and he contents himself with 'ordinary clearing work' - burning farms and herding women, children, old men and other non-combatants with their livestock and vehicles. 27 October, Emily Hobhouse arrives in Table Bay on board the SS Avondale Castle, but is refused permission to go ashore by Col. H. Cooper, the Military Commandant of Cape Town. 29 October, Reverend John Knox Little states in the United Kingdom: "Among the unexampled efforts of kindness and leniency made throughout this war for the benefit of the enemy, none have surpassed the formation of the Concentration Camps". 31 October, Despite letters of protest to Lord Alfred Milner, Sir Walter Hely-Hutchinson and Lord Ripon, Emily Hobhouse, although unwell, is forced to undergo a medical examination. She is eventually wrapped in a shawl and physically carried off the Avondale Castle. She is taken aboard the Roslin Castle for deportation under martial law regulations.The officially recorded camp population of White camps is 113 506 and the deaths for October stand at 3 156. 1 November, Miss Emily Hobhouse, under deportation orders on board the Roslin Castle writes to Lord Kitchener: "... I hope in future you will exercise greater width of judgement in the exercise of your high office. To carry out orders such as these is a degradation both to the office and the manhood of your soldiers. I feel ashamed to own you as a fellow-countryman."And to Lord Milner: "Your brutal orders have been carried out and thus I hope you will be satisfied. Your narrow incompetency to see the real issues of this great struggle is leading you to such acts as this and many others, straining [staining S.K.] your own name and the reputation of England..." Boer prisoners in Johannesburg. Source: Parliament Archive, Cape Town 7 November, The Governor of Natal informs St John Brodrick that the wives of Pres. Steyn, General Paul Roux, Chief Commandant C.R. de Wet, Vice President Schalk Burger and Gen. J.B.M. Hertzog, the last four all presently in Natal, are to be sent to a port, other than a British port, outside South Africa.Lord Milner, referring to the concentration camps, writes to British Colonial Secretary Joseph Chamberlain: "I did not originate this plan, but as we have gone so far with it, I fear that a change now might only involve us in fresh and greater evils." 15 November, In his 'General Review of the Situation in the Two New Colonies', Lord Milner reports to Chamberlain, "... even if the war were to come to an end tomorrow, it would not be possible to let the people in the concentration camps go back to their former homes. They would only starve there. The country is, for the most part, a desert..." 16 November, On being questioned by St John Brodrick on his motivations for proposing the deportation of prominent Boer women, Kitchener cancels his orders. 21 November, Referring to a 'scorched earth' raid, Acting State President S.W. Burgers and State Secretary F.W. Reitz address a report to the Marquis of Salisbury, the British Prime Minister: "This removal took place in the most uncivilised and barbarous manner, while such action is ... in conflict with all the up to the present acknowledged rules of civilised warfare. The families were put out of their houses under compulsion, and in many instances by means of force ... (the houses) were destroyed and burnt with everything in them ... and these families among them were many aged ones, pregnant women, and children of very tender years, were removed in open trolleys (exposed) for weeks to rain, severe cold wind and terrible heat, privations to which they were not accustomed, with the result that many of them became very ill, and some of them died shortly after their arrival in the women's camps." The vehicles were also overloaded, accidents happened and they were exposed to being caught in crossfire. They were exposed to insults and ill-treatment by Blacks in service of the troops as well as by soldiers. "...British mounted troops have not hesitated in driving them for miles before their horses, old women, little children, and mothers with sucklings to their breasts ..." 30 November, The officially recorded camp population of the White camps is 117 974 and the deaths for November are 2 807. 1 December, Fully aware of the state of devastation in the Republics, and trying to force the Boer leadership to capitulate, Lord Milner approves a letter that Kitchener sends to London, with identical copies to Burger, Steyn and De Wet. In the letter he informs them that as they have complained about the treatment of the women and children in the camps, he must assume that they themselves are in a provision to provide for them. He therefore offers all families in the camps who are willing to leave, to be sent to the commandos, as soon as he has been informed where they can be handed over. 4 December, Lord Milner comments on the high death rate in the Free State concentration camps: "The theory that, all the weakly children being dead, the rate would fall off, it is not so far borne out by the facts. I take it the strong ones must be dying now and that they will all be dead by the spring of 1903! ..." 7 December, In a letter to Chamberlain, Lord Milner writes: "... The black spot - the one very black spot - in the picture is the frightful mortality in the Concentration Camps ... It was not until 6 weeks or 2 months ago that it dawned on me personally ... that the enormous mortality was not incidental to the first formation of the camps and the sudden inrush of people already starving, but was going to continue. The fact that it continues is no doubt a condemnation of the camp system. The whole thing, I now think, has been a mistake." 8 December, Commenting on the concentration camps, Lord Milner writes to Lord Haldane: "I am sorry to say I fear ... that the whole thing has been a sad fiasco. We attempted an impossibility - and certainly I should never have touched the thing if, when the 'concentration' first began, I could have foreseen that the soldiers meant to sweep the whole population of the country higgledy piggledy into a couple of dozen camps ... " 10 December, President Steyn replies to the British Commander-in-Chief Lord Kitchener's letter about releasing the women and children, that, however glad the burghers would be to have their relatives near them, there is hardly is single house in the Orange Free State that is not burnt or destroyed and everything in it looted by the soldiers. The women and children will be exposed to the weather under the open sky. On account of the above-mentioned reasons they have to refuse to receive them. He asks Kitchener to make the reasons for their refusal known to the world. Anglo-Boer war prisoners in St Helena showing old men and young boys with toys made at the camp. Source: Parliament Archive 11 December, In his reply to Kitchener's letter about the release of women and children, Chief Commandant De Wet says: "I positively refuse to receive the families until such time as the war will be ended, and we shall be able to vindicate our right by presenting our claims for the unlawful removal of and the insults done to our families as well as indemnification on account of the uncivilised deed committed by England by the removal of the families ..." 12 December, The report of the Ladies Commission (Fawcett Commission) is completed on this day, but is only published during February 1902. The Commission is highly critical of the camps and their administration, but cannot recommend the immediate closure of the camps "... to turn 100 000 people new being fed in the concentration camps out on the veldt to take care of themselves would be a cruelty; it would be turning them out to starvation..." The Commission substantiated the most Emily Hobhouse's serious charges, bur reviled her for her compassion for enemy subjects. 22 December, On Peace Sunday, Dr Charles Aked, a Baptist minister in Liverpool, England, protests: "Great Britain cannot win the battles without resorting to the last despicable cowardice of the most loathsome cur on earth - the act of striking a brave man's heart through his wife's honour and his child's life. The cowardly war has been conducted by methods of barbarism ... the concentration camps have been Murder Camps." He is followed home by a large crowd and they smash the windows of his house. 31 December, The camp population in White camps is 89 407 with 2 380 deaths during December. 1902 22 January, In a daring exploit, General Beyers and about 300 men seize the concentration camp at Pietersburg and take the camp superintendent and his staff prisoner. After all-night festivities with wives, friends and family, the superintendent and his staff are released the next day on the departure of Beyers. 31 January, The officially reported White camp population is 97 986 and the deaths for January are 1 805. 4 March, The long-delayed report of the Ladies Commission (Fawcett Commission) on the concentration camps is discussed in the House of Commons. The Commission concludes that there are three causes for the high death rate: "1. The insanitary condition of the country caused by the war. 2. Causes within the control of the inmates. 3. Causes within the control of the administration." The Opposition tables the following motion: "This House deplores the great mortality in the concentration camps formed in the execution of the policy of clearing the country." In his reply Chamberlain states that it was the Boers who forced the policy on them and the camps are actually an effort to minimise the horrors of war. The Opposition motion is defeated by 230 votes to 119. 24 March, Mr H.R. Fox, Secretary of the Aborigines Protection Society, after being made aware by Emily Hobhouse of the fact that the Ladies Commission (Fawcett Commission) ignored the plight of Blacks in concentration camps, writes to Joseph Chamberlain, Colonial Secretary. He requests that such inquiries should be instituted by the British government "as should secure for the natives who are detained no less care and humanity than are now prescribed for the Boer refugees". On this request Sir Montagu Ommaney, the permanent under-secretary at the Colonial Office, is later to record that it seems undesirable "to trouble Lord Milner ... merely to satisfy this busybody". 9 April, Emily Hobhouse's 42nd birthday. 30 April, The officially reported population of the White camps is 112 733 and the death toll for April stands at 298. 15 May, Sixty Republican delegates take part in a three-day conference in Vereeniging, debating whether to continue fighting or end the war.Complicated negotiations continue between Boer delegates among themselves and British delegates, also with different opinions, up to the end of May.During the peace negotiations Acting President Schalk Burger of the ZAR (South African Republic/Transvaal) says: "... it is my holy duty to stop this struggle now that it has become hopeless ... and not to allow the innocent, helpless women and children to remain any longer in their misery in the plaque-stricken concentration camps ..." 31 May, The officially reported camp population of the White camps is 116 572 and the deaths for May are 196.The final peace conditions, comprised in The Treaty of Vereeniging, is signed by representatives of both the Burghers and the British at 23:05 at Melrose House, Pretoria.After this, inhabitants of the concentration camps were gradually released as burghers came to claim the members of their families still living, while other left on their own to return to their burnt-down houses and farms. 27 927 persons died in the camps, 1 676 men, mainly those too old to be on commando, 4 177 women and 22 074 children under sixteen. Federation These 8 facts of life must be presented by the LLP. to the white electorate. But it has to present a ninth fact of its own. It has decided to work towards a federal constitu- tion and a federal parliament, the powers of which will be allotted to it by the white parliament of " w h i t e " South Africa. That in the first place is going to require an amount of co-operation from the other homeland governments of an almost unbelievable kind. But suppose it is achieved. Then the white parliament must begin to allot yet more powers to the federal parliament, until eventually the transfer of power is complete. The U.P. will go down in history as one of the most extraordinary parties in the history of parliamentary government. BUT - BUT - BUT - The white fear! The gross disparity! The machinery of apartheid! One cannot frontally assault the first, but the white parlia- ment that is going to phase itself out must first phase out the gross disparity and start dismantling the machinery. I am convinced that the gross disparity in financial status is one of the deepest causes of white fear and black resentment. The dismantling of apartheid would certainly decrease black resentment. But will it lessen white fear or increase it? That is a big question. But the important thing is t o be doing, and to be seen to be doing, something about it. FEDERATION by Leo Marquard I should like to congratulate and thank those responsible for calling this conference. If anything is to become of the much-talked about federation it is at such conferences as this that ideas will have to be sorted out before they are presented to the public - that is, to 14 or 15 million adult South Africans. The word 'federation' is very much in the air these days, and I mean that in both senses: it is being talked about a good deal in rather limited circles, and the talk is often divorced from reality. This is the result, I think, of the rather loose conceptions of federation that are current. I have an uncomfortable feeling that it has become fashionable to throw off remarks at cocktail parties that, of course, what we really need is federation, more often than not w i t h the I wish to make one last point, I believe it is possible t o cherish an ideal goal, and to be willing at the same time to pursue it by methods not so ideal, that is by methods one would not have used had one been able to use others. I realise that this causes tensions between young and old, between black and white, between the militants and the dogged stickers, between the radicals and the liberals, between the all-or-nothings and the all-or-somethings. In fact an all-or-nothinger finds it difficult — logically and psychologically — t o understand an all-or-somethinger. There is a kind of presumption that an all-or-somethinger has already announced his intentions of settling for a very small something. A n d there is a kind of nobility accredit- ed t o those who take nothing, and a kind of ignobilit^ t o those who take something. If I had a leaning when I was younger, it was to the noble side. I remember Donald Molteno saying to me at a Liber- al Party meeting, in that devastating way of his, " t h e trouble w i t h y o u , Paton, is that you think the Liberal Party is a church." But now I'm out to get something. I'm out t o make white South Africa do something (sensible, I mean). I'm out to make everyone who can, do something. Therefore I am out to make the U.P. do something. All that I can say to them is, do it quickly. Otherwise violence and death will be the destiny of many of us, both black and white, many of us yet not born.D Alan Paton (Paper read at the Conference on Federation, held near East London on the 9th November 1973.) corollary that this will fix the Nationalists or possibly even the United Party. It is rather like a doctor saying to a banned person whose passport has been taken from h i m : 'What you really need is t o get away from South Africa for a long holiday. Why not go to the Reviera? '. Alternatively, of course, you can establish yourself as an up-to-date authority by saying, possibly even at the same cocktail party: 'Of course it's quite absurd. Federation has never worked anywhere else and it certainly w o n ' t work here.' The reason why the feeling I have about this superficial attitude is uncomfortable is that, as you all know, federation is not going to come about merely as the result of a change of government or of a slight shift in white political power or of sloaans. There is nothina 'mere' about what is reauired before a federation can be brought about. And unless it is recognised that it is going to be a long and hard job we shall fail to take even the first step, which is to bring the idea of federation into the sphere of public conciousness and thus of practical politics. It is because I believe that federation, properly understood, could be a useful constitutional device in South Africa's circumstances that I think it is important to be clear about what we mean by it. I suggest the straightforward defini- tion that it is a system of government best suited to those who desire union but do not want unity. And federation will come about only when people believe that it is both useful and safe. It is hardly necessary to say that South Africa is essentially a country in which federation would be more appropriate for all the inhabitants than either of the t w o alternatives of total partition or total union. The conditions that make it so are its diverse population w i t h great differences of race, language, history and culture; its divergent climatic regions and great geographic distances; and its diverse economic conditions. Not only is South Africa — and, indeed, Southern Africa an area where federation is an appropriate form of government: these conditions have, after all, always been there. But, so it seems to me, conditions have never been so favourable for f r u i t f u l discussion about it. The main reason for this is the very general realisation that South Africa's race policies are rapidly reaching the end of the road. What we are now experiencing is the logical outcome of generations of those policies which, during the past twentyfive years, have gone under the general name of apartheid. A n d the logical consequences of apartheid are not pleasant to contemplate. That is why more and more people are seeking alternatives. I don't want to be misunderstood when I say that the fear of worsening racial disharmony is a powerful factor in inducing South Africans of all races to seek an escape. I do not regard federation as a means of solving race questions or dissolving race prejudice and I do not advocate it for that reason. But it could provide a constitutional framework within which such questions may find more rational answers. Incidentally, there seems to be an idea abroad that there is something ignoble, almost dishonest in acting under the spur of fear. This seems to me to be nonsense and I hope advocates of federation will not for one instant allow this to deter or inhibit them. It would take a lot of hard, clever, and honest propaganda to persuade the people of South Africa that, in theory at any rate, federation would be a good thing. But it is not, I believe, impossible to do so. A much bigger snag comes in the second part of my definition. You can persuade South Africans that federation is useful. But can you convince them that it is safe? How do you set about persuading the Zulu and the Xhosa that federation is not just the latest model of colonial exploitation? How do you convince Afrikaners that their language and culture will be safer under federation than they are now, when political power, however illusory, is in Afrikaner hands? . I am not going even to suggest answers. That is, after all, what this conference is about. But I would like t o make a few observations. In the first place, let us not fall into the trap of expecting federation to do what it never was designed to do. It is not designed to rid society of race prejudice, to abolish greed and the exploitation of the weak by the strong. It is not designed to ensure either weak or strong central or local government. In other words, federation is not a social or political panacea. It is not a super washing machine into which you can put all your dirty political and economic linen and expect to have it come out clean and shiny. In the second place, while it is of great advantage not to be dogmatic about any federal arrangements that are suggested, it is important to realise that there are three essential principles in federation: the division of sovereign powers, the special function of the supreme court, and the machinery for constitutional amendment. Any plans for federation should be measured against these three principles. If they are violated or even watered down and weakened, the result will almost certainly be a pernicious distortion of federation. Finally, let us, black and white together, not underestimate the immensity of the task of persuading black and white that federation is sound and safe. Nor, at the same time, let us shrink from it. This conference may not be the beginning of the end; but as Churchill said, it might well be the end of the beginning. And to quote another great man, Albert Luthuli, who once said to me: ' It doesn't matter how fast the car goes so long as it's going in the following notice is hereby published for general information. By order of His Excellency the High Commissioner and Administrator of the Transvaal. WE Davidson, Acting Secretary to the Transvaal Administration -3 rd June 1902. ARMY HEADQUARTERS, SOUTH AFRICA General Lord Kitchener of Khartoum, Command in Chief AND His Excellency Lord Milner, High Commissioner, on behalf of the BRITlSH GOVERNMENT, AND Messrs S.W. Burger, F.W. Reitz, Louis Botha, J.H. de la Rey, LJ. Meyer, and J.C. Krogh, acting as the government of south african REPUBLIC, AND Messrs W.J.C. Brebner, C.R. de Wet, J.B.M. Hertzog, and C.H. Olivier, acting as the government of the orange free state, on behalf of their respective burghers Desirous to terminate the present hostilities, agree on the following Articles. 1. The burgher Forces in the Field will forthwith lay down their Arms, handing over all Guns, Rifles, and Munitions of War, in their possession or under their control, and desist from any further resistance to the Authority of his majesty king edward VII, whom they recognise as their lawful sovereign. The Manner and details of this surrender will be arranged between Lord Kitchener and Commandant General Botha, Assistant Commandant General de la Rey and Chief Commandant De Wet. 2. Burghers in the field outside the limits of the transvaal and orange river colony, and all Prisoners of War at present outside South Africa, who are burghers, will, on duly declaring their acceptance of the position of subjects of his majesty king dward VII, be gradually brought back to their homes as soon as transport can be provided and their means of subsistence ensured. 3. The burghers so surrendering or so returning will not be deprived of their personal liberty, or their property. 4. No proceedings civil or criminal will be taken against any of the burghers so surrendering or so returning for any Acts in connection with the prosecution of the War. The benefit of this clause will not extend to certain Acts contrary to the usage of War which have been notified by the Commander in Chief to the Boer Generals, and which shall be tried by Court Martial immediately after the close of hostilities. 5. The dutch language will be taught in Public Schools in the T ransvaal and the orange river colony where the Parents of the Children desire it, and will be allowed in courts of law when necessary for the better and more effectual Administration of Justice. 6. The Possession of Rifles will be allowed in the transvaal and O range river colony to persons requiring them for their protection on taking out a licence according to Law. 7. MILITARY ADMINISTRATION in the TRANSVAAL and ORANGE river colony will at the earliest possible date be succeeded by civil government, and, as soon as circumstances permit, Representative Institutions, leading up to self-Government, will be introduced. 8. The question of granting the Franchise to Natives will not be decided until after the introduction of Self-Government. 9. No Special Tax will be imposed on Landed Property in the transvaal and orange river colony to defray the Expenses of the War. 10. As soon as conditions permit, a Commission, on which the local inhabitants will be represented, will be appointed in each District of the transvaal and orange river colony, under the Presidency of a Magistrate or other official, for the purpose of assisting the restoration of the people to their homes and supplying those who, owing to war losses, are unable to provide for themselves, with food, shelter, and the necessary amount of seed, stock, implements etc. indispensable to the resumption of their normal occupations. His Majesty's Government will place at the disposal of these Commissions a sum of three million pounds sterling for the above purposes, and will allow all notes, issued under Law No. 1 of 1900 of the Government of the south african republic, and all receipts, given by the officers in the field of the late Republics or under their orders, to be presented to a judicial commission, which will be appointed by the Government, and if such notes and receipts are found by this Commission to have been duly issued in return for valuable consideration they will be received by the first-named Commissions as evidence of War losses suffered by the persons to whom they were originally given. In addition to the above named free grant of three million pounds, His Majesty's Government will be prepared to make advances as loans for the same purpose, free of interest for two years, and afterwards repayable over a period of years with 3 per cent interest. No foreigner or rebel will be entitled to the benefit of this Clause. Signed at Pretoria this thirty first day of May in the Year of Our Lord Thousand Nine Hundred and Two. [Signed] KITCHENER OF KHARTOUM, MILNER, S W BURGER, F W REITZ, LOUIS BOTHA, J H DE LA REY, L J MEYER, J C KROGH, C R DE WET, J B M HERTZOG, WJ C BREBNER, C .H OLIVIER Source , No 22, March 1978 Peace Treaty of Vereeniging - transcript Published date 16/01/2012 Last updated 12/05/2017 Related Collections from the Archive Peace Treaty of Vereeniging - transcript Second Anglo-Boer War - 1899 - 1902 Related content Second Anglo-Boer War - 1899 - 1902 THE FOLLOWING NOTICE is hereby published for general information. By order of His Excellency the High Commissioner and Administrator of the Transvaal. WE Davidson, Acting Secretary to the Transvaal Administration -3rd June 1902. ARMY HEADQUARTERS, SOUTH AFRICA General Lord Kitchener of Khartoum, Command in Chief AND His Excellency Lord Milner, High Commissioner, on behalf of the BRITlSH GOVERNMENT, AND Messrs S.W. Burger, F.W. Reitz, Louis Botha, J.H. de la Rey, LJ. Meyer, and J.C. Krogh, acting as the GOVERNMENT of SOUTH AFRICAN REPUBLIC, AND Messrs W.J.C. Brebner, C.R. de Wet, J.B.M. Hertzog, and C.H. Olivier, acting as the GOVERNMENT of the ORANGE FREE STATE, on behalf of their respective BURGHERS Desirous to terminate the present hostilities, agree on the following Articles. 1. The BURGHER Forces in the Field will forthwith lay down their Arms, handing over all Guns, Rifles, and Munitions of War, in their possession or under their control, and desist from any further resistance to the Authority of HIS MAJESTY KING EDWARD VII, whom they recognise as their lawful SOVEREIGN. The Manner and details of this surrender will be arranged between Lord Kitchener and Commandant General Botha, Assistant Commandant General de la Rey and Chief Commandant De Wet. 2. Burghers in the field outside the limits of the TRANSVAAL and ORANGE RIVER COLONY, and all Prisoners of War at present outside South Africa, who are burghers, will, on duly declaring their acceptance of the position of subjects of HIS MAJESTY KING DWARD VII, be gradually brought back to their homes as soon as transport can be provided and their means of subsistence ensured. 3. The BURGHERS so surrendering or so returning will not be deprived of their personal liberty, or their property. 4. No proceedings CIVIL or CRIMINAL will be taken against any of the BURGHERS so surrendering or so returning for any Acts in connection with the prosecution of the War. The benefit of this clause will not extend to certain Acts contrary to the usage of War which have been notified by the Commander in Chief to the Boer Generals, and which shall be tried by Court Martial immediately after the close of hostilities. 5. The DUTCH language will be taught in Public Schools in the TRANSVAAL and the ORANGE RIVER COLONY where the Parents of the Children desire it, and will be allowed in COURTS of LAW when necessary for the better and more effectual Administration of Justice. 6. The Possession of Rifles will be allowed in the TRANSVAAL and ORANGE RIVER COLONY to persons requiring them for their protection on taking out a licence according to Law. 7. MILITARY ADMINISTRATION in the TRANSVAAL and ORANGE RIVER COLONY will at the earliest possible date be succeeded by CIVIL GOVERNMENT, and, as soon as circumstances permit, Representative Institutions, leading up to self-Government, will be introduced. 8. The question of granting the Franchise to Natives will not be decided until after the introduction of Self-Government. 9. No Special Tax will be imposed on Landed Property in the TRANSVAAL and ORANGE RIVER COLONY to defray the Expenses of the War. 10. As soon as conditions permit, a Commission, on which the local inhabitants will be represented, will be appointed in each District of the TRANSVAAL and ORANGE RIVER COLONY, under the Presidency of a Magistrate or other official, for the purpose of assisting the restoration of the people to their homes and supplying those who, owing to war losses, are unable to provide for themselves, with food, shelter, and the necessary amount of seed, stock, implements etc. indispensable to the resumption of their normal occupations. His Majesty's Government will place at the disposal of these Commissions a sum of three million pounds sterling for the above purposes, and will allow all notes, issued under Law No. 1 of 1900 of the Government of the SOUTH AFRICAN REPUBLIC, and all receipts, given by the officers in the field of the late Republics or under their orders, to be presented to a JUDICIAL COMMISSION, which will be appointed by the Government, and if such notes and receipts are found by this Commission to have been duly issued in return for valuable consideration they will be received by the first-named Commissions as evidence of War losses suffered by the persons to whom they were originally given. In addition to the above named free grant of three million pounds, His Majesty's Government will be prepared to make advances as loans for the same purpose, free of interest for two years, and afterwards repayable over a period of years with 3 per cent interest. No foreigner or rebel will be entitled to the benefit of this Clause. Signed at Pretoria this thirty first day of May in the Year of Our Lord Thousand Nine Hundred and Two. [Signed] KITCHENER OF KHARTOUM, MILNER, S W BURGER, F W REITZ, LOUIS BOTHA, J H DE LA REY, L J MEYER, J C KROGH, C R DE WET, J B M HERTZOG, WJ C BREBNER, C .H OLIVIER Louis Botha Louis Botha was born near Greytown in Natal in 1862. He was the son of Voortrekker parents and was brought up on a farm in the Free State, and was educated at the local German mission school. A Boer general and statesman, he was leader of the Transvaal army in the Second Anglo-Boer War (1899-1902) from March 1900, and he was one of the architects of the Union of South Africa. His vision of South Africa included both British and Dutch. Botha was a leading figure in the Paris Peace Conference at the end of World War I. A great man of action, he was renowned for his simplicity, humanity, quick wit and good nature. He was endowed with natural gifts, yet his training was hardly sufficient to equip him for fifteen years of unremitting political, diplomatic, and military tasks. Louis Botha's ancestors came from Thuringia in central Germany. Around 1672, a young soldier, Frederich Boot, or Botha, arrived at the Cape and later became a free burgher. Several of his descendants signed themselves as 'Both' and 'Boota'. His paternal grandfather Philip Rudolf took part in the Great Trek. Louis, the ninth among thirteen children, was born near Greytown in the Colony of Natal on 27 September 1862. The family moved to the Orange Free State near Vrede in 1869. In 1880, at the outbreak of the First Anglo-Boer War, Louis overheard that British spies were crossing into the Transvaal by using rowing boats belonging to farmers along the Vaal riverbanks. He resolved to cut every boat and pontoon adrift and accomplished it. The Volksraad decided to act on Botha's recommendations that the Uitlanders should be granted franchise concessions, dependent on residency prior to July 1892. The folly of the Jameson Raid of December 1895, had however, strengthened stubborn resistance to Uitlander grievances, and weakened the position of Joubert's followers. With Lucas Meyer, De la Rey and others, he was strongly opposed to sending the British the fateful ultimatum. But by October 2, 1899, shortly before Kruger's ultimatum, Botha had already left Pretoria for Vryheid to prepare for military service. Emphatically against war - he was nevertheless prepared to oppose any actions that might affect the integrity of his country. When war broke out in 1899 Botha at once volunteered as an ordinary burgher for the Vryheid commandos under General Lucas Meyer In December 1900, the republics were annexed under the names of the Transvaal and Orange River Colony. Though the burghers refused to condone this, Lord Roberts reported to the Secretary for War that organized resistance had ceased. Roberts was wrong. With the railways in the hands of the British, Botha returned to guerrilla tactics. This new phase in Botha's war was marked by a change in the Boer morale. They fought on with renewed vigour and belief in their cause, operating from their home areas, living off the country and seizing British supplies. Kitchener determined to end the war at all costs. He built blockhouses linked by fences and telephones which marched for miles across the endless veld, organized systematic drives to catch their quarry, deported prisoners-of-war, and placed the women and children in concentration camps, where the death rate soared. Despite all these measures Botha, De la Rey, De Wet and the other leaders consistently evaded capture. Trains were boldly attacked, railway lines destroyed. Stronger discipline was enforced. Smuts and Botha carried out raids into the Cape and Natal. Kitchener, on his own initiative, opened peace negotiations with Botha in February and March 1901 using Annie Botha as an intermediary. They met at Middelburg where Kitchener presented draft peace terms, approved by Milner and Chamberlain, granting financial assistance and reconstruction of property, and postponing black voting rights until after representative government had been introduced in the 'annexed colonies', in return for the surrender of Boer independence. The Boers found this unacceptable and many were angered that Botha had agreed to negotiate with Kitchener. Kitchener pressed Milner to soften the terms by introducing representative governments almost immediately and by granting full amnesty to the rebels. But Milner objected. The Boers responded by rejecting the British terms. Though Botha was hard pressed, he got as far as Babanango in Zululand and managed to capture a convoy of thirty-one British wagons in September. But, by October 1901, the commandos had become fugitives and ammunition and supplies were dwindling to nothing; nonetheless, Botha defeated a British force on the 20th at Bakenlaagte. Botha said he owed much to his wonderful white horse, Dopper, which carried him through the war! A meeting of sixty representatives of the commandos met on 15 May 1902 at Vereeniging to ascertain the views of the burghers. The representatives reported that in every area people were in desperate straits. To continue the war, Botha concluded, would result in total destruction of the two erstwhile republics and the virtual extermination of its people. On May 16, in a carefully reasoned speech, he persuaded the Free Staters that a decision for peace should be declared while they were still a nation, 'Do not let us regard a period of universal burial as the bitter end. If we do, we shall be to blame for national suicide,' he said. On May 28, during negotiations at Pretoria, Lord Milner tried to get the five Boer generals to sign an unsatisfactory document recognizing the proclamations that had annexed the republics as colonies. Botha emphatically rejected this scheme. But negotiations were going anything but smoothly. Lord Milner, unbending, wanted the Afrikaners denationalized and would not be limited by a timetable for self-government. The only concession he made was at the expense of blacks and Coloureds who were expressly excluded from political participation until some hazy period in the future. Botha succeeded in fixing a sum for economic reconstruction after the war and a draft was drawn up which became the Peace Treaty. The Boers were bitter. On May 29, negotiations were resumed. President Steyn left Pretoria, using his serious illness as an excuse to avoid signing the peace treaty. For three days, the negotiators argued. Then on the last morning, Botha and De La Rey managed to persuade defiant General de Wet to support the cause for peace. General Hertzog expressed his respect for Botha at this time, 'for he has shown himself to be possessed of a heart that feels all these things (the brunt of war), while he has had the courage to tell his people, and us, exactly how matters stand'. Reluctantly the burghers decided to relinquish their independence and to accept the otherwise generous terms of peace. The annexation proclamations were tacitly dropped, and the Treaty of Vereeniging was ratified on May 31 by fifty-four votes to six. For Milner the task was to control and administer a loyal post-war British South Africa himself. For Botha the task was to transform himself from a fighting man into a politician to ensure lasting peace in southern Africa. Though they had been conquered and impoverished, the Afrikaners had not been denationalised, and Milner failed to swamp them with British immigrants. Having overwhelmed the republics, British supremacy in South Africa began to wane. Botha, De la Rey, and De Wet were appointed to collect money overseas for economic reconstruction of the country. In July, the trio left for Europe, but despite their warm reception, they only raised £125,000. Chamberlain refused to increase the amount agreed on for reconstruction. Botha then wrote a persuasive article in The Contemporary Review, 'The Boers and the Empire', in which he described the advantages a conciliatory and accommodating attitude on the part of the British would have as a humane gesture and as effective politics. Shortly afterward, the British House of Commons voted a further £8-million. Botha also pleaded for an amnesty for the Cape and Natal rebels, and Chamberlain eventually agreed that the two colonial governments should decide on the matter. Botha interceded with the Cape and Natal premiers and the amnesty was granted. Back in South Africa, Botha determined to bring his people together again. Afrikaners resented Milner increasingly for his repatriation policies, for the way he carried out British compensation, and because he wanted to import Chinese labour to work on the mines. Botha, Smuts and De la Rey refused to serve on the Legislative Council in 1903. A protest meeting, headed by Botha, was held in Heidelberg to ask that Dutch and English be given equal status, to prevent further Chinese immigration, and to push for postponement of further importation of Indians. Milner's Legislative Council ignored the protesters. Smuts and other Boer leaders founded Het Volk in May 1904. Although it was an Afrikaner political party, it was based on principles likely to appeal to Boer and Englishman alike. It aimed for conciliation, self-government, and acceptance of those who had surrendered or had served with the British. One year later, the party's influence had spread so far that a meeting was held at the Wanderers, Johannesburg, to oppose the Lyttelton Constitution. Here, they protested against Chinese labour, the inadequate government of the former republics as crown colonies, and, finding some support among prominent businessmen, they founded the Responsible Government Association. Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman, leader of the Liberal Party, had publicly endorsed his party's abhorrence of Kitchener's farm burnings and concentration camps as 'methods of barbarism'. In Britain, reaction had set in and at the end of 1905, the Liberal Party was swept in to victory at the polls. Botha immediately sent Smuts overseas to plead for self-government. Campbell-Bannerman convinced his cabinet ministers that it would be 'a great act of faith' to make amends and retain Afrikaner co-operation. The Transvaal and the Free State shortly afterward obtained responsible government. (Transvaal in December 1906 and Orange River Colony in June 1907). Het Volk, now including many English-speaking allies, won the next election, and Botha became Prime Minister of the Transvaal on 4 March 1907. Botha attended the opening of Parliament at Pretoria by Lord Selborne on 21 March 1902 and heard him announce the decision to cease employment of Chinese labour by the Witwatersrand mines. Soon afterwards, he was summoned to attend the Imperial Conference. Botha was conciliatory. He pronounced Afrikaner loyalty to the Empire, presented the Cullinan diamond to Edward VII and was highly praised in England and South Africa. However, there was some tongue wagging in South Africa that Botha was becoming too anglicized. The gracious gesture of the uncommon present was immediately generously returned by the British House of Commons, which approved a loan to the Transvaal of £5 million. This was used mainly to establish the Land Bank to assist farmers, part was used to introduce free primary education, the railways were expanded, experimental farms were developed, and the fight against cattle diseases was given vigorous impetus. With all four colonies self-governing, hopes revived for uniting South Africa under one government. Botha and Smuts worked hard towards this goal. Gold and diamond production expanded and economic prosperity followed. But, politically, Botha was walking a tightrope. The majority of Chinese were repatriated, but the Indian question was thorny. Indians were very dissatisfied when compulsory registration of Indians in the Transvaal was passed in 1906 and the Gold Law of 1908 further restricted their trade. Afrikaners mistrusted Botha for his friendliness towards the British, especially after the Education Act of 1907 made English, but not Dutch, a compulsory school-learning subject. Nevertheless, supported by moderate Afrikaners and English-speakers, his party grew. In July 1907, the Selborne Memorandum, and in May 1908, the Customs Conference, laid the foundations for the National Convention. Botha played a leading part in the deliberations of the National Convention that produced the constitution for a unified form of government, ratified by the British Parliament on 31 May 1910. Botha becomes the first Prime Minister of the Union of South Africa on 21 May 1910. In terms of the South Africa Act, the first governor-general, Lord Gladstone, asked Botha to form the government for the Union of South Africa. John X Merriman, the experienced Prime Minister of the Cape, had been considered, but Botha's great prestige and his standing amongst Afrikaners made him the obvious choice. Instead of choosing a 'Best Man' government from all the parties Botha chose his cabinet from supportive party representatives. Percy Fitzpatrick was disillusioned because Botha had given up his negotiations for choosing a moderate government of the best brains in the country; but Fitzpatrick was stunned when he learned that Botha was to oppose him at Pretoria East. However, on polling day in September 1910, Botha, in a hotly contested election, was sensationally defeated by his former friend. To get into Parliament the member for Standerton was obliged to resign and Botha sought re-election at Standerton. Botha was faced with the problem of what to do with General J B M Hertzog, a controversial but influential figure among the Afrikaners, whom Free Staters especially, regarded as their own spokesman. Botha tried to fob him off by offering him a judgeship instead of a cabinet post but Hertzog turned it down. Botha was torn, and believing that Afrikaner leaders in his government might accommodate Afrikaner interests, he reluctantly appointed Hertzog minister of Justice and Native Affairs. This alienated many English-speakers, particularly when Hertzog delivered a number of speeches stressing that South African interests should come before those of Empire and that a 'two-stream' policy should be followed regarding Dutch and English-speaking white South Africans. Botha agreed that South Africa came first, but he disapproved of Hertzog's speeches on these issues for being tactless and inappropriate political wrangling. Minister of Commerce Colonel G Leuchars resigned in protest over Hertzog's speeches and Hertzogism divided Botha's party. English-speakers were against the bilingualism clause in the Civil Service and Pensions Bill presented before Parliament in April 1912. Minister of Finance H C Hull and Minister of Railways J W Sauer clashed on overlapping railway and financial matters and Hull resigned. Botha then dissolved his cabinet and excluded Hertzog and Leuchars. By 1913, the Afrikaner people were completely divided and nationalism carried its own momentum. The National Party was founded in 1914 with Hertzog, as leader, defining a 'two stream policy' -two nationalities flowing in parallel channels of cultural and national development - in contradiction of Botha's avowed 'one stream' policy to merge the two races into one people, the object of union. Like Hertzog, Botha believed in maintaining black traditions and in totally segregating black and white, except where blacks were needed as workers. As agriculture expanded, his attitude to blacks became increasingly illiberal in his efforts to placate the white races. The oppressive Native Land Act of 1913 was a revolution in land tenure; blacks had no rights to hire or buy land in the white areas and their lands were strictly demarcated and inadequate. At the outbreak of World War I, though some 70,000 Africans were recruited and went to France to work behind the lines, generally, they were not affected. Botha thought that while the war continued it would be very unwise to raise any large issues of policy in connection with the African population. In an attempt to appease and reunify Afrikaners by showing that he and Hertzog shared a mutual approach to segregation, Botha introduced the Native Affairs Administration Bill in 1917. This dealt with the question of the segregation of blacks, the principle of which had been settled by the Act of 1913. Merriman vigorously the bill, predicting that large numbers of Africans would be forced to leave their districts. He foresaw that the promised commission to investigate the purchase of additional land for them would be thwarted by whites, who would never agree to sell their lands. The bill caused intense anxiety among blacks, for what they needed was access to land on easy terms. Among whites, there was such intense disagreement within Botha's party that the bill was finally withdrawn. The industrial colour bar was a related question. It had been introduced to assist impoverished whites in retaining jobs threatened by the influx into the towns of blacks who accepted lower wages. White workers were determined to resist any upward movement of blacks with skills. From 1911, efforts were made to reclassify semi-skilled mining and railway tasks as skilled and thus, reserved for whites. Industrial unrest erupted on the Rand in May 1913. Neglect and incompetence allowed the situation to get out of hand. In June, fighting and violent outrages broke out in Johannesburg and many people died. The government conceded to nearly all the demands of the Labour leaders, but six months later gold miners, coal miners and railway workers went on strike again. Smuts put down the strike and deported nine foreign leaders. Their political opponents labelled Botha and Smuts military dictators and the Labour Party gained many erstwhile supporters of the SAP. The Great War confronted the Botha Government with a crisis: what part should South Africa play in it, and what action should the Union take in regard to German South West Africa? Botha felt it was a debt of 'duty and honour' to demonstrate gratitude for the early granting of self-government. But he had another motive too: he did not wish any other country to occupy and administer South West Africa. He had an eye on its incorporation into South Africa after the war. He considered the army that the Germans were raising in South West Africa a threat to South Africa itself. He therefore told the British Government that the Union would defend itself, and, as South Africa was part of the British Empire, it would look on Britain's enemies as its own. This pronouncement estranged influential anti-British Afrikaners. At Britain's request, Botha undertook to seize those parts of South West Africa, which would give it command of Luderitz Bay and Swakopmund. Their aim was to take over the coastal wireless stations and especially the long-distance radio transmitters at Windhoek, which they wrongly thought were able to transmit to German ships and submarines. Hertzog pleaded for neutrality. Many Afrikaners had ties of kinship with Germany and they felt grateful for the sympathy of the German people during the Anglo-Boer War. Though the Kaiser had let them down, Germans had assisted the Boers in the field and through the Red Cross, to the extent that President Steyn had said, 'My people here consider that they are under a debt of obligation to the German race.' Afrikaners did not universally hold these feelings, but there was widespread dissatisfaction. Botha and Smuts took steps to carry out the campaign, using volunteers. Botha did not consult Steyn or Hertzog beforehand and in his patriotic speeches he failed to stress the material advantages to South Africa of such a campaign. Unintentionally, he set those with German loyalties against those with British loyalties. The chief of the citizen force, General Beyers, resigned on 15 September 1914. That same evening General De la Rey was accidentally shot dead by the police. General De Wet held protest meetings in the Orange Free State and on 10 October Lieutenant Colonel S G (Manie) Maritz, who commanded the north-western Cape border, defected to the Germans. The protest in the Transvaal and the Orange Free State had become a rebellion. Botha defeated De Wet in a sharp skirmish, Beyers was put to flight and subsequently drowned. The rebellion was a formidable revolt of some thirteen thousand inadequately armed burghers who were prepared to follow their leaders blindly. Had it been successful, it would have led to a general civil war. It distressed Botha to take up arms against his own people. Though an amnesty was declared for the rank and file and the leaders were leniently treated, their prison sentences and fines upset Afrikaners and the shooting of Jopie Fourie as a traitor caused deep resentment. Botha commanded the Union troops in South West Africa, penetrating the region in four different directions; he overran the German positions and put them to flight. Early in July 1915, the Germans surrendered, but the full peace terms were only to be drawn up after the war in Europe had ended. The elections of 1915 were stormy. Botha was attacked for not implementing language equality. The Nationalists pronounced him a disloyal Afrikaner and he lost much support. Though the SAP won the elections, the Prime Minister did not have an outright majority in Parliament. His task was onerous after he took over the portfolio for Defence from Smuts, who had assumed supreme command of the South African forces in German East Africa. Botha was offered a post on the British War Cabinet but refused, and in 1914, Smuts sailed for Britain to attend the Imperial Conference and to take his place on the War Cabinet. Try as he might, Botha could not reconcile or reunite his people. And as the republican movement gained strength, his health began to fail. The Nationalists criticized his war policy and chided him for the country's lack of economic development because of South Africa's war effort. In 1917, the National Party proclaimed a republican manifesto, which asked Britain to restore independence to the former Boer republics. Unionists set fire to properties belonging to Afrikaners who in turn formed themselves into commandos. Botha swiftly intervened. Then blacks went on strike in Johannesburg and were sternly dealt with. This gave rise to further unrest. Peace. At the end of the war in 1918 Botha personally directed the repatriation of the South African troops in France. He went with Smuts to Paris to join the Allied delegations to the Peace Conference. Botha wanted to annex South West Africa outright but could not obtain general agreement on the issue from Wilson. Under the Peace of Versailles, the territory of South West Africa was handed over to the Union 'to be administered as an integral part of the Union with full power of administration and legislation,' subject to the Mandate of the League of Nations. This obliged the Union to submit annual reports on its administration of the mandated territory. The proposed peace terms were severe. Smuts at first refused to sign, but Botha realized further argument would be futile and persuaded Smuts to sign. Botha was given a tumultuous welcome on his return to South Africa. Worn out and not in the best of health, he caught a cold at his farm Rusthof that quickly developed into pneumonia. Very ill, he returned to his home in Pretoria where he died of a heart attack a few days later. He was buried in the Rebecca Street cemetery in Pretoria on 30 August. BACK TO THE TOP OF THE PAGE

Afrikaners Afrikaners (Afrikaans: [afriˈkɑːnərs] ) are a Southern African ethnic group descended from predominantly Dutch settlers first arriving at the Cape of Good Hope in 1652 . Until 1994, they dominated South Africa 's politics as well as the country's commercial agricultural sector. Afrikaans , a language primarily descended from Dutch , is the mother tongue of Afrikaners and most Cape Coloureds . According to the South African National Census of 2022 , 10.6% of South Africans claimed to speak Afrikaans as a first language at home, making it the third most widely spoken home language in the country. The arrival of Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama at Calicut , India, in 1498 opened a gateway of free access to Asia from Western Europe around the Cape of Good Hope . This access necessitated the founding and safeguarding of trade stations along the African and Asian coasts. The Portuguese landed in Mossel Bay in 1498, explored Table Bay two years later, and by 1510 had started raiding inland. Shortly afterwards, the Dutch Republic sent merchant vessels to India and, in 1602, founded the Dutch East India Company (Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie; VOC).the volume of traffic rounding the Cape increased, the VOC recognised its natural harbour as an ideal watering point for the long voyage around Africa to East Asia and established a victualling station there in 1652. VOC officials did not favour the permanent settlement of Europeans in their trading empire, although during the 140 years of Dutch rule many VOC servants retired or were discharged and remained as private citizens. Furthermore, the exigencies of supplying local garrisons and passing fleets compelled the administration to confer free status on employees and oblige them to become independent farmers. Encouraged by the success of this experiment, the company extended free passage from 1685 to 1707 for Dutch families wishing to settle at the Cape. In 1688, it sponsored the settlement of 200 French Huguenot refugees forced into exile by the Edict of Fontainebleau . The terms under which the Huguenots agreed to immigrate were the same as those offered to other VOC subjects, including free passage and the requisite farm equipment on credit. Prior attempts at cultivating vineyards or exploiting olive groves for fruit had been unsuccessful, and it was hoped that Huguenot colonists accustomed to Mediterranean agriculture could succeed where the Dutch had failed. They were augmented by VOC soldiers returning from Asia, predominantly Germans channeled into Amsterdam by the company's extensive recruitment network and thence overseas. Despite their diverse nationalities, the colonists used a common language and adopted similar attitudes towards politics. The attributes they shared served as a basis for the evolution of Afrikaner identity and consciousness. In the twentieth century, Afrikaner nationalism took the form of political parties and closed societies, such as the Broederbond . In 1914, the National Party was founded to promote Afrikaner interests. It gained power by winning South Africa's 1948 general elections . The party was noted for implementing a harsh policy of racial segregation (apartheid ) and declaring South Africa a republic in 1961. Following decades of domestic unrest and international sanctions that resulted in bilateral and multi-party negotiations to end apartheid , South Africa held its first multiracial elections under a universal franchise in 1994. As a result of this election the National Party was oustedrom power, and was eventually dissolved in 2005 Nomenclature The term "Afrikaner" currently denotes the politically, culturally, and socially dominant and majority group[22] [need quotation to verify ] among white South Africans , or the Afrikaans -speaking population of Dutch origin. Their original progenitors, especially in paternal lines, also included smaller numbers of Flemish , French Huguenot , German , Danish , Norwegian , Swiss , and Swedish immigrants. Historically, the terms "burgher " and "Boer " have both been used to describe white Afrikaans-speakers as a group; neither is particularly objectionable, but "Afrikaner" has been considered a more appropriate term. By the late nineteenth century, the term was in common usage in both the Boer republics and the Cape Colony . At one time, burghers denoted Cape Dutch : those settlers who were influential in the administration, able to participate in urban affairs, and did so regularly. Boers often refer to settled ethnic European farmers or nomadic cattleherders. During the Batavian Republic of 1795–1806, burgher ('citizen') was popularised among Dutch communities both at home and abroad as a popular revolutionary form of address. In South Africa, it remained in use as late as the Second Boer War of 1899–1902. The first recorded instance of a colonist identifying as an Afrikaner occurred in March 1707, during a disturbance in Stellenbosch [2 When the magistrate , Johannes Starrenburg, ordered an unruly crowd to desist, a young white man named Hendrik Biebouw retorted, "Ik wil niet loopen, ik ben een Afrikaander – al slaat de landdrost mij dood, of al zetten hij mij in de tronk, ik zal, nog wil niet zwijgen!" ("I will not leave, I am an African – even if the magistrate were to beat me to death or put me in jail, I shall not be, nor will I stay, silent!"). Biebouw was flogged for his insolence and later banished to Batavia [ (present-day Jakarta, Indonesia). The word Afrikaner is thought to have first been used to classify Cape Coloureds , or other groups of mixed-race ancestry. Biebouw had numerous "half-caste" (mixed race) siblings and may have identified with Coloureds socially. The growing use of the term appeared to express the rise of a new identity for white South Africans, suggesting for the first time a group identification with the Cape Colony rather than with an ancestral homeland in Europe. Afrikaner culture and people are also commonly referred to as the Afrikaans or Afrikaans people. Population 1691 estimates Increase of European families in the Cape by year YearNumber 1657–1675 46 1675-1700 154 1700–1725 263 1725–1750 272 1750–1775 400 1775–1795 391 Historical population YearPop.±% p.a. 1657137— 17546,000+3.97% 180626,720+2.91% 19361,120,770+2.92% 19601,600,000+1.49% 19852,581,080+1.93% 19962,558,956−0.08 20012,576,184+0.13% Note: For the years 1985–2011, the census statistics show the number of Afrikaans-speaking whites. Considering that there could be a significant number of English-speaking Afrikaners (especially after 2001), the numbers could be higher. VOC initially had no intention of establishing a permanent European settlement at the Cape of Good Hope ; until 1657, it devoted as little attention as possible to the development or administration of the Dutch Cape Colony . From the VOC's perspective, there was little financial incentive to regard the region as anything more than the site of a strategic manufacturing centre. Furthermore, the Cape was unpopular among VOC employees, who regarded it as a barren and insignificant outpost with little opportunity for advancement. A small number of longtime VOC employees who had been instrumental in the colony's founding and its first five years of existence, however, expressed interest in applying for grants of land with the objective of retiring at the Cape as farmers. In time, they came to form a class of former VOC employees, vrijlieden, also known as vrijburgers (free citizens, who stayed in Dutch territories overseas after serving their contracts. The vrijburgers were to be of Dutch birth (although exceptions were made for some Germans), married, "of good character", and had to undertake to spend at least twenty years in Southern Africa. In March 1657, when the first vrijburgers started receiving their farms, the white population of the Cape was only about 134. Although the soil and climate in Cape Town were suitable for farming, willing immigrants remained in short supply, including a number of orphans, refugees, and foreigners. From 1688 onward, the Cape attracted some French Huguenots , most of them refugees from the protracted conflict between Protestants and Catholics in France. South Africa's white population in 1691 has been described as the Afrikaner "parent stock", as no significant effort was made to secure more colonist families after the dawn of the 18th century, and a majority of Afrikaners are descended from progenitors who arrived prior to 1700 in general and the late 1600s in particular. Although some two-thirds of this figure were Dutch-speaking Hollanders, there were at least 150 Huguenots and a nearly equal number of Low German speakers. Also represented in smaller numbers were Swedes , Danes , and Belgians . 1754 estimates In 1754, Cape Governor Ryk Tulbagh conducted a census of his non-indigenous subjects. White vrijburgers - now outnumbered by slaves brought from West Africa , Mozambique , Madagascar and the Dutch East Indies - only totaled about 6,000. 1806 estimates Following the defeat and collapse of the Dutch Republic during Joseph Souham 's Flanders Campaign , William V, Prince of Orange , escaped to the United Kingdom and appealed to the British to occupy his colonial possessions until he was restored. Holland's administration was never effectively reestablished; upon a new outbreak of hostilities with France, expeditionary forces led by Sir David Baird, 1st Baronet , finally permanently imposed British rule when they defeated Cape governor Jan Willem Janssens in 1806. At the onset of Cape Town 's annexation to the British Empire , the original Afrikaners numbered 26,720 – or 36% of the colony's population 1960 Census The South African census of 1960 was the final census undertaken in the Union of South Africa . The ethno-linguistic status of some 15,994,181 South African citizens was projected by various sources through sampling language, religion, and race. At least 1.6 million South Africans were white Afrikaans speakers, or 10% of the total population. They also constituted 9.3% of the population in neighbouring South West Africa . 1985 Census According to the 1985 South African census, there were 2,581,080 white Afrikaans speakers then residing in the country, or about 9.4% of the total population. 1996 Census The South African National Census of 1996 was the first census conducted in post-apartheid South Africa. It was calculated on Census Day and reported a population of 2,558,956 white Afrikaans speakers. The census noted that Afrikaners represented the eighth largest ethnic group in the country, or 6.3% of the total population. Even after the end of apartheid, the ethnic group only fell by 25,000 people. 2001 Census The South African National Census of 2001 was the second census conducted in post-apartheid South Africa. It was calculated on October 9 and reported a population of 2,576,184 white Afrikaans speakers. The census noted that Afrikaners represented the eighth largest ethnic group in the country, or 5.7% of the total population. Distribution Main article: Distribution of white South Africans Distribution of Afrikaans versus English as home language of white South Africans. 87.5–100% Afrikaans 75–87.5% Afrikaans 62.5–75% Afrikaans 50–62.5% Afrikaans 50–62.5% English 62.5–75% English 75–87.5% English 87.5–100% English Afrikaners make up approximately 58% of South Africa's white population, based on language used in the home. English speakers account for closer to 37%. As in Canada or the United States , most modern European immigrants elect to learn English and are likelier to identify with those descended from British colonials of the nineteenth century. Aside from coastal pockets in the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal they remain heavily outnumbered by those of Afrikaans origin Histor Early Dutch settlement Main article: Free Burghers in the Dutch Cape Colony Painting of the arrival of Jan van Riebeeck The earliest Afrikaner communities in South Africa were formed at the Cape of Good Hope, mainly through the introduction of Dutch colonists, French Huguenot refugees, and erstwhile servants of the VOC. During the early colonial period, Afrikaners were generally known as "Christians", "colonists", "emigrants", or ingezeetenen ("inhabitants"). Their concept of being rooted in Africa—as opposed to the company's expatriate officialdom—did not find widespread expression until the late eighteenth century. It is to the ambitions of Prince Henry the Navigator that historians attribute the discovery of the Cape as a settling ground for Europeans. In 1424, Henry and Fernando de Castro besieged the Canary Islands , under the impression that they might be of use to further Portuguese expeditions around Africa's coast. Although this attempt was unsuccessful, Portugal's continued interest in the continent made possible the later voyages of Bartholomew Dias in 1487 and Vasco da Gama ten years later. Dias made known to the world a "Cape of Storms", rechristened "Good Hope" by John II . As it was desirable to take formal possession of this territory, the Portuguese erected a stone cross in Algoa Bay . Gama and his successors, however, did not take kindly to the notion, especially following a skirmish with the Khoikhoi in 1497, when one of his admirals was wounded. After the British East India Company was founded in 1599, London merchants began to take advantage of the route to India by the Cape. James Lancaster , who had visited Robben Island some years earlier, anchored in Table Bay in 1601. By 1614, the British had planted a penal colony on the site, and in 1621 two Englishmen claimed Table Bay on behalf of King James I , but this action was not ratified. They eventually settled on Saint Helena as an alternative port of refuge. Due to the value of the spice trade between Europe and their outposts in the East Indies , Dutch ships began to call sporadically at the Cape in search of provisions after 1598. In 1601, a Captain Paul van Corniden came ashore at St. Sebastion's Bay near Overberg .[11] He discovered a small inlet which he named Vleesch Bay ('Meat Bay'), after the cattle trade, and another Visch Bay ('Fish Bay') after the abundance of fish. Not long afterwards, Admiral Joris van Spilbergen reported catching penguins and sheep on Robben Island. In 1648, Dutch sailors Leendert Jansz and Nicholas Proot had been shipwrecked in Table Bay and marooned for five months until picked up by a returning ship. During this period they established friendly relations with the locals, who sold them sheep, cattle, and vegetables. Both men presented a report advocating the Table valley as a fort and garden for the VOC fleets. We say, therefore, that the Honourable Company, by the formation of a fort or redoubt, and also of a garden of such size as may be practicable or necessary at the above-mentioned Cabo de Boa Esperanza, upon a suitable spot in Table Valley, stationing there according to your pleasure sixty to seventy as well soldiers as sailors, and a few persons acquainted with gardening and horticulture, could raise, as well for the ships and people bound to India as for those returning thence, many kinds of fruit, as will hereafter be more particularly demonstrated. — Excerpt from Jansz and Proot's report. Under recommendation from Jan van Riebeeck , the Heeren XVII authorised the establishment of a fort at the Cape, and this the more hurriedly to preempt any further imperial maneuvers by Britain, France or Portugal. Van Riebeeck, his family and seventy to eighty VOC personnel arrived there on 6 April 1652 after a journey of three and a half months. Their immediate task was the establishment of some gardens, "taking for this purpose all the best and richest ground"; following this they were instructed to conduct a survey to determine the best pastureland for the grazing of cattle. By 15 May, they had nearly completed construction on the Castle of Good Hope , which was to be an easily defensible victualing station serving Dutch ships plying the Indian Ocean . Dutch sailors appreciated the mild climate at the Cape, which allowed them to recuperate from their protracted periods of service in the tropical humidity of Southeast Asia. VOC fleets bearing cargo from the Orient anchored in the Cape for a month, usually from March or April, when they were resupplied with water and provisions prior to completing their return voyage to the Netherlands. In extent the new refreshment post was to be kept as confined as possible to reduce administrative expense. Residents would associate amiably with the natives for the sake of livestock , but otherwise keep to themselves and their task of becoming self-sufficient. As the VOC's primary goal was merchant enterprise, particulaly its shipping network traversing the Atlantic and Indian Oceans between the Netherlands and various ports in Asia, most of its territories consisted of coastal forts, factories, and isolated trading posts dependent entirely on indigenous host states. The exercise of Dutch sovereignty, as well the large scale settlement of Dutch colonists, was therefore extremely limited at these sites. ring the VOC's history only two primary exceptions to the rule emerged: the Dutch East Indies and the Cape of Good Hope, through the formation of the vrijburgers. The VOC operated under a strict corporate hierarchy which allowed it to formally assign classifications to those whom it determined fell within its legal purview. Most Europeans within the VOC's registration and identification system were denoted either as employees or vrijburgers. The legal classifications imposed upon every individual in the Company possessions determined their position in society and conferred restraints upon their actions. VOC ordinances made a clear distinction between the "bonded" period of service, and the period of "freedom" that began once an employment contractended. In order to ensure former employees could be distinguished from workers still in the service of the company, it was decided to provide them a "letter of freedom", a licence known as a vrijbrief. European employees were repatriated to the Netherlands upon the termination of their contract, unless they successfully applied for a vrijbrief, in which they were charged a small fee and registered as a vrijburger in a VOC record known collectively as the vrijboeken ('free(dom) books'). Fairly strict conditions were levied on those who aspired to become vrijburgers at the Cape of Good Hope. They had to be married Dutch citizens who were regarded as being "of good character"by the VOC and committed to at least twenty years' residence in South Africa. Reflecting the multi-national nature of the workforce of the early modern trading companies, some foreigners, particularly Germans, were open to consideration as well. If their application for vrijburger status was successful, the Company granted them plots of farmland of thirteen and a half morgen (equal to 2,000 to 10,100 square metres or 1⁄2 to 2+1⁄2 acres), which were tax exempt for twelve years. They were also loaned tools and seeds. The extent of their farming activities, however, remained heavily regulated: for example, the vrijburgers were ordered to focus on the cultivation of grain. Each year their harvest was to be sold exclusively to the VOC at fixed prices. They were forbidden from growing tobacco, producing vegetables for any purpose other than personal consumption, or purchasing cattle from the native Khoikhoi at rates which differed from those set by the VOC. With time, these restrictions and other attempts by the VOC to control the settlers resulted in successive generations of vrijburgers and their discendants becoming increasingly localised in their loyalties and national identity, and hostile towards the colonial government. Around March 1657, Rijcklof van Goens , a senior VOC officer appointed as commissioner to the fledgling Dutch Cape Colony , ordered Jan van Riebeeck to help more employees succeed as vrijburgers so the company could save on their wages. Although an overwhelming majority of the vrijburgers were farmers, some also stated their intention to seek employment as farm managers, fishermen, wagon-makers, tailors, or hunters. A ship's carpenter was granted a tract of forest, from which he was permitted to sell timber, and one miller from Holland opened his own water-operated corn mill, the first of its kind in Southern Africa. The colony initially did not do well, and many of the discouraged vrijburgers returned to VOC service or sought passage back to the Netherlands to pursue other opportunities. Vegetable gardens were frequently destroyed by storms, and cattle lost in raids by the Khoikhoi, who were known to the Dutch as Hottentots. There was also an unskilled labour shortage, which the VOC later resolved by bringing slaves from Angola, Madagascar, and the East Indies. In 1662, van Riebeeck was succeeded by Zacharias Wagenaer as governor of the Cape. Wagenaer was somewhat aloof towards the vrijburgers, whom he dismissed as "sodden, lazy, clumsy louts...since they do not pay proper attention to the [slaves] lent to them, or to their work in the fields, nor to their animals, for that reason seem wedded to the low level and cannot rid themselves of their debts". When Wagenaer arrived, he observed that many of the unmarried vrijburgers were beginning to cohabit with their slaves, with the result that 75% of children born to Cape slaves at the time had a Dutch father. Wagenaer's response was to sponsor the immigration of Dutch women to the colony as potential wives for the settlers. Upon the outbreak of the Second Anglo-Dutch War , Wagenaer was perturbed by the British capture of New Amsterdam and attacks on other Dutch outposts in the Americas and on the west African coast. He increased the Cape garrison by about 300 troops and replaced the original earthen fortifications of the Castle of Good Hope with new ones of stone. In 1672, there were 300 VOC offiials, employees, soldiers and sailors at the Cape, compared to only about 64 vrijburgers, 39 of whom were married, with 65 children. By 1687, the number had increased to about 254 vrijburgers, of whom 77 were married, with 231 children. Simon van der Stel , who was appointed governor of the Cape in 1679, reversed the VOC's earlier policy of keeping the colony limited to the confines of the Cape peninsula itself and encouraged Dutch settlement further abroad, resulting in the founding of Stellenbosch . Van der Stel persuaded 30 vrijburgers to settle in Stellenbosch and a few years afterwards the town received its own municipal administration and school. The VOC was persuaded to seek more prospective European immigrants for the Cape after local officials noted that the cost of maintaining gardens to provision passing ships could be eliminated by outsourcing to a greater number of vrijburgers. Furthermore, the size of the Cape garrison could be reduced if there were many colonists capable of being called up for militia service as needed. Following the passage of the Edict of Fontainebleau , the Netherlands served as a major destination for French Huguenot refugees fleeing persecution at home. In April 168, the VOC agreed to sponsor the resettlement of over 100 Huguenots at the Cape.[ Smaller numbers of Huguenots gradually arrived over the next decade, and by 1702 the community numbered close to 200. Between 1689 and 1707 they were augmented by additional numbers of Dutch settlers sponsored by the VOC with grants of land and free passage to Africa. Additionally, there were calls the VOC administration to sponsor the immigration of more German settlers to the Cape, as long as they were Protestant. VOC pamphlets began circulating in German cities exhorting the urban poor to seek their fortune in southern Africa. Despite the increasing diversity of the colonial population, there was a degree of cultural assimilation due to intermarriage, and the almost universal adoption of the Dutch language. The use of other European languages was discouraged by a VOC edict declaring that Dutch should be the exclusive language of administrative record and education. In 1752, French astronomer Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille visited the Cape and observed that nearly all the third-generation descendants of the original Huguenot and German settlers spoke Dutch as a first language. Impact of the British occupation of the Cape Trekboers making camp, an 1804 painting by Samuel Daniell . Long before the British annexed the Cape Colony, there were already large Dutch-speaking European settlements in the Cape Peninsula and beyond; by the time British rule became permanent in 1806, these had a population of over 26,000. There were, however, two distinct subgroups in the vrijburger population settled under the VOC. The first were itinerant farmers who began to progressively settle further and further inland, seeking better pastures for their livestock and freedom from the VOC's regulations. This community of settlers collectively identified themselves as Boers to describe their agricultural way of life. Their farms were enormous by European standards, as the land was free and relatively underpopulated; they merely had to register them with the VOC, a process that was little more than a formality and became more irrelevant the further the Boers moved inland. A few Boers adopted a semi-nomadic lifestyle permanently and became known as trekboers . The Boers were deeply suspicious of the centralised government and increasing complexities of administration at the Cape; they constantly migrated further from the reaches of the colonial officialdom whenever it attempted to regulate their activities. By the mid-eighteenth century the Boers had penetrated almost a thousand kilometres into South Africa's interior beyond the Cape of Good Hope, at which point they encountered the Xhosa people , who were migrating southwards from the opposite direction. Competition between the two communities over resources on the frontier sparked the Xhosa Wars . Harsh Boer attitudes towards black Africans were permanently shaped by their contact with the Xhosa, which bred insecurity and fear on the frontier. The second subgroup of the vrijburger population became known as the Cape Dutch and remained concentrated in the southwestern Cape and especially the areas closer to Cape Town. They were likelier to be urban dwellers, more educated, and typically maintained greater cultural ties to the Netherlands than the Boers. The Cape Dutch formed the backbone of the colony's market economy and included the small entrepreneurial class. These colonists had vested economic interests in the Cape peninsula and were not inclined to venture inland because of the great difficulties in maintaining contact with a viable market. This was in sharp contrast with the Boers on the frontier, who lived on the margins of the market economy. For this reason the Cape Dutch could not easily participate in migrations to escape the colonial system, and the Boer strategy of social and economic withdrawal was not viable for them. Their response to grievances with the Cape government was to demand political reform and greater representation, a practice that became commonplace under Dutch and subsequently British rule. In 1779, for example, hundreds of Cape burghers smuggled a petition to Amsterdam demanding an end to VOC corruption and contradictory laws. Unlike the Boers, the contact most Cape Dutch had with black Africans were predominantly peaceful, and their racial attitudes were more paternal than outright hostile. Meanwhile, the VOC underwent a period of commercial decline beginning in the late eighteenth century which ultimately resulted in its bankruptcy. The company had suffered immense losses to its trade profits as a result of the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War and was heavily in debt with European creditors. In 1794, the Dutch government intervened and assumed formal administration of the Cape Colony. However, events at the Cape were overtaken by turmoil in the Netherlands, which was occupied by Napoleon during the Flanders Campaign . This opened the Cape to French naval fleets. To protect her own prosperous maritime shipping routes, Great Britain occupied the fledgling colony by force until 1803. From 1806 to 1814 the Cape was again governed as a British military dependency, whose sole importance to the Royal Navy was its strategic relation to Indian maritime traffic. The British formally assumed permanent administrative control around 1815, as a result of the Treaty of Paris . Relations between some of the colonists and the new British administration quickly soured. The British brought more liberal attitudes towards slavery and treatment of the indigenous peoples to the Cape, which were utterly alien to the colonists. Furthermore, they insisted that the Cape Colony finance its own affairs by taxes levied on the white population, an unpopular measure which bred resentment. By 1812, new attorneys-general and judges had been imported from England and many of the preexisting VOC-era institutions abolished, namely the Dutch magistrate system and the only vestige of representative government at the Cape, the burgher senate. The new judiciary then established circuit courts, which brought colonial authority directly to the frontier. These circuit courts were permitted to try colonists for allegations of abuse of slaves or indentured servants. Most of those tried for these offences were frontier Boers; the charges were usually brought by British missionaries and the courts themselves staffed by unsympathetic and liberal Cape Dutch. The Boers, who perceived most of the charges levelled against them to be flimsy or exaggerated, often refused to answer their court summons. In 1815, a Cape police unit was dispatched to arrest a Boer for failure to appear in court on charges of cruelty towards indentured Khoisan servants; the colonist fired on the troopers when they entered his property and was killed. The controversy which surrounded the incident led to the abortive Slachter's Nek Rebellion , in which a number of Boers took up arms against the British. British officials retaliated by hanging five Boers for insurrection. In 1828, the Cape governor declared that all native inhabitants but slaves were to have the rights of citizens, in respect of security and property ownership, on parity with whites. This had the effect of further alienating the Boers. Boer resentment of successive British administrators continued to grow throughout the late 1820s and early 1830s, especially with the official imposition of the English language. This replaced Dutch with English as the language used in the Cape's judicial system, putting the Boers at a disadvantage, as most spoke little or no English at all. Bridling at what they considered an unwarranted intrusion into their way of life, some in the Boer community began to consider selling their farms and venturing deep into South Africa's unmapped interior to preempt further disputes and live completely independent from British rule. From their perspective, the Slachter's Nek Rebellion had demonstrated the futility of an armed uprising against the new order the British had entrenched at the Cape; one result was that the Boers who might have otherwise been inclined to take up arms began preparing for a mass emigration from the colony instead. The Great Trek Main article: Great Trek Between 1834 and 1840 about 15 000 Afrikaners left the Cape Colony permanently. They called themselves 'emigrants' and their mass-trek an 'emigration', but in the late 19th century this mass-movement became known as the Great Trek and the emigrants Voortrekkers . The Voortrekkers departed the colony in a series of parties, taking with them all their livestock and portable property, as well as slaves, and their dependents. They had the skills to maintain their own wagons and firearms, but remained dependent on equally mobile traders for vital commodities such as gunpowder and sugar. Nevertheless, one of their goals was to sever their ties with the Cape's commercial network by gaining access to foreign traders and ports in east Africa, well beyond the British sphere of influence. The various motives for the Great Trek are laid out in the Voortrekker leader, Piet Retief's 1837 manifesto. On the one hand, there was an ongoing conflict between the Boers and the Xhosa inhabitants on the frontier, as well as growing resentment between the farmers and the restrictions imposed upon them by British colonial authorities. Land prices had also increased considerably during the 1820s and 1830s, which meant that the younger generation could not afford their own pieces of land, a problem that would only grow. Another reason was concerns about labour loss and financial retribution with the passing of Ordinance 50 in 1828, which outlawed slavery. The Great Trek split the Afrikaner community along social and geographical lines, driving a wedge between the Voortrekkers and those who remained in the Cape Colony. Only about a fifth of the colony's Dutch-speaking white population at the time participated in the Great Trek. The Dutch Reformed Church , to which most of the Boers belonged, condemned the migration. Despite their hostility towards the British, there were also Boers who chose to remain in the Cape of their own accord. For its part, the distinct Cape Dutch community remained loyal to the British Crown and focused its efforts on building political organisations seeking representative government; its lobbying efforts were partly responsible for the establishment of the Cape Qualified Franchise in 1853. Weenen massacre : Zulus killed hundreds of Boer colonists (1838) As important as the Trek was to the formation of Boer ethnic identity, so were the running conflicts with various indigenous groups along the way. One conflict central to the construction of Boer identity occurred with the Zulu in the area of present-day KwaZulu-Natal . The Boers who entered Natal discovered that the land they wanted came under the authority of the Zulu King Dingane kaSenzangakhona , who ruled that part of what subsequently became KwaZulu-Natal. The British had a small port colony (the future Durban) there but were unable to seize the whole area from the war-ready Zulus and only kept to the Port of Natal. The Boers found the land safe from the British and sent an unarmed Boer land treaty delegation under Piet Retief on February 6, 1838, to negotiate with the Zulu King. The negotiations went well, and a contract between Retief and Dingane was signed. However, Dingane's forces surprised and killed the members of the delegation; a large-scale massacre of the Boers followed: see Weenen massacre . Zulu izibutho ('regiments') attacked Boer encampments in the Drakensberg foothills at what was later called Blaauwkrans and Weenen , killing women and children along with men. (By contrast, in earlier conflicts the trekkers had experienced along the eastern Cape frontier, the Xhosa had refrained from harming women and children.) A commando of 470 men arrived to help the settlers. On 16 December 1838, the Voortrekkers under the command of Andries Pretorius confronted about 10,000 Zulus at the prepared positions. The Boers had three injuries without any fatalities. Due to the blood of 3,000 slain Zulus that stained the Ncome River , the conflict afterwards became known as the Battle of Blood River . In present-day South Africa, 16 December remains a celebrated public holiday, initially called "Dingane's Day". After 1952, the holiday was officially recognised and named the Day of the Covenant, changed to Day of the Vow in 1980 (Mackenzie 1999:69)[clarification needed ] and, after the abolition of apartheid, to Day of Reconciliation in 1994. The Boers saw their victory at the Battle of Blood River as evidence that they had found divine favour for their exodus from British rule. Boer republics Main article: Boer Republics Boer guerrillas during the Second Boer War After defeating the Zulu and the recovery of the treaty between Dingane and Retief, the Voortrekkers proclaimed the Natalia Republic . In 1843, Britain annexed Natal and many Boers trekked inwards again. Due to the return of British rule, Boers fled to the frontiers to the north-west of the Drakensberg mountains, and onto the highveld of the Transvaal and Transoranje. These areas were mostly unoccupied due to conflicts in the course of the genocidal Mfecane wars of the Zulus on the local Basuthu population who used it as summer grazing for their cattle. Some Boers ventured beyond the present-day borders of South Africa, north as far as present-day Zambia and Angola. Others reached the Portuguese colony of Delagoa Bay , later called Lourenço Marques and subsequently Maputo – the capital of Mozambique. Lizzie van Zyl , visited by Emily Hobhouse in a British concentration camp A significant number of Afrikaners also went as Dorsland Trekkers to Angola , where a large group settled on the Huíla Plateau , in Humpata , and smaller communities on the Central Highlands . They constituted a closed community which rejected integration as well as innovation, became impoverished in the course of several decades, and returned to South West Africa and South Africa in waves. Afrikaner diaspora in Africa and the world. unavailable < 10,000 10,000+ 1,000,000+ The Boers created sovereign states in what is now South Africa: de Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek (the South African Republic ) and the Orange Free State were the most prominent and lasted the longest. The discovery of goldfields awakened British interest in the Boer republics, and the two Boer Wars resulted: The First Boer War (1880–1881) and the Second Boer War (1899–1902). The Boers won the first war and retained their independence. The second ended with British victory and annexation of the Boer areas into the British colonies. The British employed scorched earth tactics and held many Boers in concentration camps as a means to separate commandos from their source of shelter, food and supply. The strategy had its intended effect, but an estimated 27,000 Boers (mainly women and children under sixteen) died in these camps from hunger and disease . Post Boer War diaspora See also: South African Argentines In the 1890s, some Boers trekked into Mashonaland , where they were concentrated at the town of Enkeldoorn, now Chivhu . After the second Boer War, more Boers left South Africa. Starting in 1902 to 1908 a large group of around 650 Afrikaners emigrated to the Patagonia region of Argentina , under the leadership Louis Baumann and the Italian Camillo Ricchiardi (most notably to the towns of Comodoro Rivadavia and Sarmiento ), choosing to settle there due to its similarity to the Karoo region of South Africa. Another group emigrated to British-ruled Kenya, from where most returned to South Africa during the 1930s as a result of warfare there amongst indigenous people. A third group, under the leadership of General Ben Viljoen , emigrated to Chihuahua in northern Mexico and to the states of Arizona , California, New Mexico and Texas in the south-western US. Others migrated to other parts of Africa, including German East Africa (present day Tanzania, mostly near Arusha). Brazil is the country in Latin America with the largest community of White Afrikaners and White Boers, they mostly live in Southeastern Brazil , the most populous area of the country. In 2020, they numbered 2,895 people. A relatively large group of Boers settled in Kenya. The first wave of migrants consisted of individual families, followed by larger multiple-family treks. Some had arrived by 1904, as documented by the caption of a newspaper photograph noting a tent town for "some of the early settlers from South Africa" on what became the campus of the University of Nairobi . Probably the first to arrive was W.J. van Breda (1903), followed by John de Waal and Frans Arnoldi at Nakuru (1906). Jannie De Beer's family resided at Athi River , while Ignatius Gouws resided at Solai. The second wave of migrants is exemplified by Jan Janse van Rensburg's trek. Janse van Rensburg left the Transvaal on an exploratory trip to British East Africa in 1906 from Lourenço Marques (then Portuguese ), Mozambique. Van Rensburg was inspired by an earlier Boer migrant, Abraham Joubert, who had moved to Nairobi from Arusha in 1906, along with others. When Joubert visited the Transvaal that year, van Rensburg met with him. Sources disagree about whether van Rensburg received guarantees for land from the Governor of the East Africa Protectorate , Sir James Hayes Sadler . On his return to the Transvaal, van Rensburg recruited about 280 Afrikaners (comprising either 47 or 60 families) to accompany him to British East Africa. On 9 July 1908 his party sailed in the chartered ship SS Windhuk from Lourenço Marques to Mombasa, from where they boarded a train for Nairobi. The party travelled by five trains to Nakuru. In 1911, the last of the large trek groups departed for Kenya, when some 60 families from the Orange Free State boarded the SS Skramstad in Durban under leadership of C.J. Cloete. But migration dwindled, partly due to the British secretary of state's (then Lord Crewe) cash requirements for immigrants. When the British granted self-government to the former Boer republics of the Transvaal and the Orange Free State in 1906 and 1907, respectively, the pressure for emigration decreased. A trickle of individual trekker families continued to migrate into the 1950s. A combination of factors spurred on Boer migration. Some, like van Rensburg and Cloete, had collaborated with the British, or had surrendered during the Boer War. These joiners and hensoppers ("hands-uppers") subsequently experienced hostility from other Afrikaners. Many migrants were extremely poor and had subsisted on others' property.[83] Collaborators tended to move to British East Africa, while those who had fought to the end (called bittereinders , "bitter-enders") initially preferred German South West Africa .[77] One of the best known Boer settlements in the British East Africa Protectorate became established at Eldoret , in the south west of what became known as Kenya in 1920. By 1934, some 700 Boers lived here, near the Ugandan border. Afrikaners in Voortrekker attire in 1938. South West Africa Main articles: South West Africa and White Namibians With the onset of the First World War in 1914, the Allies asked the Union of South Africa to attack the German territory of South West Africa, resulting in the South West Africa Campaign (1914–1915). Armed forces under the leadership of General Louis Botha defeated the German forces, who were unable to put up much resistance to the overwhelming South African forces. Boer women and children in British concentration camps Many Boers, who had little love or respect for Britain, objected to the use of the "children from the concentration camps to attack the anti-British Germans, resulting in the Maritz Rebellion of 1914, which was quickly quelled by the government forces. Some Boers subsequently moved to South West Africa, which was administered by South Africa until its independence in 1990, after which the country adopted the name Namibia. Genealogy Scholars have traditionally considered Afrikaners to be a homogeneous population of Dutch ancestry, subject to a significant founder effect . This simplistic viewpoint has been challenged by recent studies suggesting multiple uncertainties regarding the genetic composition of white South Africans at large and Afrikaners in particular. Afrikaners are descended, to varying degrees, from Dutch, German and French Huguenot immigrants, along with minor percentages of other Europeans and indigenous African peoples. The first mixed race marriage which took place in Cape Town in 1664 was that of Krotoa , a Khoi woman, and Peder Havgaard, a Danish surgeon. Krotoa and Peder's descendants are the Pelzer, Kruger, Steenkamp and other Afrikaner families. Although the Cape Colony was administered and initially settled by VOC, a number of foreigners also boarded ships in the Netherlands to settle there. Their numbers can be reconstructed from censuses of the Cape rather than passenger lists, taking into account VOC employees who later returned to Europe. Some Europeans also arrived from elsewhere in Holland's sphere, especially German soldiers being discharged from colonial service. As a result, by 1691 over a quarter of the white population of South Africa was not ethnically Dutch. The number of permanent settlers of both sexes and all ages, according to figures available at the onset of British rule, numbered 26,720, of whom 50% were Dutch, 27% German, 17% French and 5.5% other. This demographic breakdown of the community just prior to the end of the Dutch administration has been used in many subsequent studies to represent the ethnic makeup of modern Afrikaners, a practise criticised by some academics such as Dr. Johannes Heese. Boer children, c. 1901 Based on Heese's genealogical research of the period from 1657 to 1867, his study Die Herkoms van die Afrikaners ("The Origins of the Afrikaners") estimated an average ethnic admixture for Afrikaners of 35.5% Dutch, 34.4% German, 13.9% French, 7.2% non-European, 2.6% English, 2.8% other European and 3.6% unknown. Heese reached this conclusion by recording all the wedding dates and number of children of each immigrant. He then divided the period between 1657 and 1867 into six thirty-year blocs, and working under the assumption that earlier colonists contributed more to the gene pool, multiplied each child's bloodline by 32, 16, 8, 4, 2 and 1 according to respective period. Heese argued that previous studies wrongly classified some German progenitors as Dutch, although for the purposes of his own study he also reclassified a number of Scandinavian (especially Danish) progenitors as German. Drawing heavily on Christoffel Coetzee de Villiers ' Geslacht Register der Oude Kaapsche Familien, British historian George McCall Theal estimated an admixture of 67% Dutch, with a nearly equal contribution of roughly 17% from the Huguenots and Germans. Theal argued that most studies suggesting a higher percentage of German ancestry among Afrikaners wrongly counted as "German" all those who came from German-speaking Swiss cantons or the Baltics and ignored the VOC's policy of recruiting settlers among the Dutch diaspora living in the border regions of several German states. The degree of intermixing among Afrikaners may be attributed to the unbalanced sex ratio which existed under Dutch governance. Only a handful of VOC employees who sailed from the Netherlands were allowed to bring their families with them, and the Dutch never employed European women in a full-time capacity. Between 1657 and 1806 no more than 454 women arrived at the Cape, as compared to the 1,590 male colonists. One of the most fundamental demographic consequences was that white South African women, much like their counterparts in colonial North America , began to marry much younger and consequently bear more children than Western Europeans. Another was the high occurrence of inter-family marriages from the matrilineal aspect.These were reinforced by the familial interdependence of the Cape's credit and mortgage obligations. Afrikaner families thus became larger in size, more interconnected, and clannish than those of any other colonial establishment in the world. Some of the more common Afrikaner surnames include Botha , Pretorius and van der Merwe . As in other cases where large population groups have been propagated by a relatively small pool of progenitors, Afrikaners have also experienced an increase in the frequency of some otherwise rare deleterious ailments, including variegate porphyria [85] and familial hypercholesterolaemia . Non-European ancestry Admixture analysis of 77 Afrikaners. According to a genetic study in February 2019, almost all Afrikaners have admixture from non-Europeans. The total amount of non-European ancestry - on average - is 4.8%, of which 2.1% are of African ancestry and 2.7% Asian/Native American ancestry.[94] Among the 77 Afrikaners investigated, 6.5% had more than 10% non-European admixture, 27.3% had between 5 and 10%, 59.7% had between 1 and 5%, and 6.5% below 1%. It appears that some 3.4% of the non-European admixture can be traced to enslaved peoples who were brought to the Cape from other regions during colonial times. Only 1.38% of the admixture is attributed to the local Khoisan people.[94] Black Afrikaners Approximately 100 black families who identify as Afrikaners live in the settlement of Onverwacht , established in 1886 near the mining town of Cullinan . Members of the community descend from the freed slaves who had been with the Voortrekkers who settled in the area. Modern history Apartheid era Main article: South Africa under apartheid In South Africa, an Afrikaner minority party, the National Party , came to power in 1948 and enacted a series of segregationist laws favouring White people known as apartheid, meaning "separateness". These laws allowed for the systematic persecution of opposition leaders and attempted to enforce general white supremacy by classifying all South African inhabitants into racial groups. Non-White political participation was outlawed, Black citizenship revoked, and the entire public sphere, including education, residential areas, medical care, and common areas such as public transport, beaches, and amenities, were segregated. Apartheid was officially abolished in 1991 after decades of widespread unrest by opponents who were seeking equal rights, led by supporters of the United Democratic Front , Pan-African Congress , South African Communist Party , and African National Congress , and a long international embargo against South Africa. The effective end to apartheid, however, is widely regarded as the 1994 general election, the first fully-democratic multi-racial election . The African National Congress won and Mandela was elected as president. Post-apartheid era de Klerk and Mandela shake hands in January 1992 In 2006 some 350,000 Afrikaners were classified as poor, with some research claiming that up to 150,000 were struggling to survive. In the early 2000s, Genocide Watch theorised that farm attacks constituted early warning signs of genocide against Afrikaners. It criticised the South African government for its inaction on the issue.As of the 1996 census, 68,606 out of the 749,637 people in the agriculture and hunting sector were white. The Sunday Times has advanced that since 1994, close to 3,000 farmers have been murdered in farm attacks .[106] Geography Afrikaners originated in the Dutch Cape Colony (after 1806, the British Cape Colony), and thus their present-day numbers are concentrated in South Africa . Afrikaners also have a significant presence in Namibia due to the country's long political administration and de facto incorporation into South Africa between 1915 and 1990. An Afrikaner diaspora has developed since the end of the South African white minority government in 1994. Emigrants have settled predominantly in English-speaking countries, with their largest concentrations in Australia and New Zealand . South Africa The South African National Census of 2011 shows the greatest geographic concentration of Afrikaners is in the City of Tshwane , with over 453,000 white Afrikaans-speakers there overall. Afrikaners are particularly prevalent in Pretoria and Centurion . At the time of the census, over 331,000 residents of Pretoria spoke Afrikaans as their first language and the city was majority (52%) white. In nearby Centurion (formerly Verwoerdburg), also majority white (59%), 115,000 residents spoke Afrikaans as their first language. The importance of this region to post-apartheid Afrikaner society can be seen in the building of campuses for two new Afrikaans-medium institutions of higher education there, Sol-Tech in 2020 (Pretoria) and Akademia in 2021 (Centurion). The importance of the City of Tshwane can also be gleaned from the numbers of high schools in the area. In 2022, 20 Afrikaans-medium secondary schools and another 6 dual- or parallel-medium (Afrikaans and English) secondary schools existed in Pretoria and Centurion graduating 4,515 students. Significant concentrations of Afrikaners also exist in the East Rand /City of Ekurhuleni , Cape Town (especially the northern suburbs around Bellville and Strand in the Helderberg ), the West Rand , Port Elizabeth , Bloemfontein and the Vaal Triangle . Namibia Afrikaner children in Namibia playing tug of war The chief site of Afrikaner settlement in Namibia is the country's capital city, Windhoek . Afrikaners are concentrated in the sections of the city east of the Western Bypass road, areas historically reserved for whites prior to the end of legal residential apartheid in 1977.In the 2011 Namibian Census, 29,717 residents spoke Afrikaans in the constituencies of Windhoek East and Windhoek West combined, both located for the most part east of the Western Bypass. This is a fair estimate of the size of the Afrikaner resident population in the city at that time. Smaller concentrations of Afrikaners exist in the coastal Namibian cities of Swakopmund and Walvis Bay , the latter an exclave of South Africa until 1994. Botswana Botswana has a small group of Afrikaners historically concentrated in the Ghanzi area, as well more recent arrivals as in the Kgalagadi District along the country's southwest border with South Africa. Afrikaners have lived in the Ghanzi area since 1898 when the British South Africa Company offered land to settlers who moved to the region. According to the 2001 Botswana Census, 6,750 residents of the country spoke Afrikaans at home making up 0.4% of the total population. As some unknown number of those counted were Coloured, the number of Afrikaners in Botswana is some degree less than the stated census figure. Afrikaner diaspora See also: Brain drain in South Africa White South Africans began emigrating in significant numbers in the mid-1970s in the wake of the Soweto uprising and again in the mid-1980s after the 1985 declaration of the state of emergency and the intensification of the South African Border War . These early waves were overwhelmingly Anglo in character, however. Not until the early 1990s, during the transition period out of apartheid and white minority rule, did Afrikaners begin leaving the country. Statistics South Africa estimated a net 304,112 white residents left the country over the years 1986–2000 with another 341,000 over the period 2001–2016. This emigration is the source of a notable Afrikaner diaspora today. Australia and New Zealand Outside South Africa and Namibia, the largest population of Afrikaners resides in Australia and New Zealand. According to the 2021 Australian census , 49,375 residents spoke Afrikaans at home. While not all of those are Afrikaners, they are likely the overwhelming majority. In 2018, 36,966 residents of New Zealand spoke Afrikaans. The largest geographic concentration of Afrikaners outside Africa is likely Auckland, New Zealand. In 2018, 1.1% of all Auckland region residents spoke Afrikaans, or roughly 16,980 people. The North Shore is a site of notable Afrikaner settlement, especially Browns Bay and the surrounding suburbs. East Auckland is a secondary site, especially Howick . A second major overseas concentration is Greater Perth , Australia. In 2021, 0.6% of the population of Western Australia 's capital and its environs, or 11,870 persons, spoke Afrikaans. The city's northwest suburbs, particularly the City of Wanneroo and City of Joondalup , have the highest concentrations of Afrikaans-speakers.The South African, and especially Afrikaans-speaking, community is so large there that South Africans have nicknamed the city "Perthfontein" and "Bloemfontein by the sea". North America Over the period 2009–13, the American Community Survey recorded 23,010 Afrikaans-speakers age 5 and over in the United States. The Atlanta metropolitan area had the highest concentration with 1,900 speakers. According to the 2021 Canadian Census, 14,665 residents of Canada spoke Afrikaans. The largest concentration was in the Vancouver metropolitan area at 1,860 persons. The United Kingdom While the United Kingdom is the leading destination for white South African emigrants, very few Afrikaners move to the country. In England and Wales in 2021, over 217,000 residents were born in South Africa but only 7,489 spoke Afrikaans as their main language. Netherlands The Netherlands, due to persistent skilled labor shortages in the 2020s, is increasingly recruiting Afrikaners. Their distance to the Dutch labor market is significantly lessened due to the partial mutual intelligibility of Afrikaans and Dutch as well as the rapid pace at which Afrikaners can typically learn Dutch. Other Afrikaner farmer in Georgia , Caucasus region, 2011 Since the early 1990s, the country of Georgia has attracted a small number of Afrikaner farmers to help revive its agricultural sector.[134] As of 2018 Russia has begun attempts of attracting Afrikaner farmers to deal with declining population. Culture Religion Main article: Afrikaner Calvinism At the time of settlement, Dutch traders and others came out of a majority- Protestant area, where the Reformation had resulted in high rates of literacy in the Netherlands. Boers in South Africa were part of the Calvinist tradition in the northern Europe Protestant countries. The original South African Boer republics were founded on the principles of the Dutch Reformed Church. Missionaries established new congregations on the frontier and churches were the center of communities. In 1985, 92% of Afrikaners identified as members of the Reformed churches that developed from this background. Pentecostal churches have also attracted new members. Language Main article: Afrikaans Alaric speaking Afrikaans. Rossouw speaking Afrikaans. The Afrikaans language changed over time from the Dutch spoken by the first white settlers at the Cape . From the late 17th century, the form of Dutch spoken at the Cape developed differences, mostly in morphology but also in pronunciation and accent and, to a lesser extent, in syntax and vocabulary, from that of the Netherlands, although the languages are still similar enough to be mutually intelligible . Settlers who arrived speaking German and French soon shifted to using Dutch and later Afrikaans. The process of language change was influenced by the languages spoken by slaves, Khoikhoi, and people of mixed descent, as well as by Cape Malay , Zulu, British and Portuguese. While the Dutch of the Netherlands remained the official language, the new dialect, often known as Cape Dutch, African Dutch, kitchen Dutch, or taal (meaning "language" in Afrikaans) developed into a separate language by the 19th century, with much work done by the Genootskap van Regte Afrikaners and writers such as Cornelis Jacobus Langenhoven . In a 1925 act of Parliament, Afrikaans was given equal status with Dutch as one of the two official languages (English being the second) of the Union of South Africa . There was much objection to the attempt to legislate the creation of Afrikaans as a new language. Marthinus Steyn , a prominent jurist and politician, and others were vocal in their opposition. Today, Afrikaans is recognised as one of the eleven official languages of South Africa , and is the third most common first language in South Africa. In June 2013, the Department of Basic Education included Afrikaans as an African language to be compulsory for all pupils. Afrikaans is offered at many universities outside of South Africa including in the Netherlands , Belgium , Germany , Poland , Russia and the United States .[136] Literature See also: South African literature Afrikaners have a long literary tradition, and have produced a number of notable novelists and poets, including Eugene Marais , Uys Krige , Elisabeth Eybers , Breyten Breytenbach , André Brink , C. J. Langenhoven and Etienne Leroux . Nobel Prize winner J. M. Coetzee is of Afrikaner descent, although he spoke English at home as a child in Cape Town. He has translated some works from Afrikaans and Dutch into English, but writes only in English. Arts See also: South African protest music See also: Music of South Africa Music is a popular art form among Afrikaners. While the traditional Boeremusiek ("Boer music") and Volkspele ('folk dancing', lit. 'people games') enjoyed popularity in the past, most Afrikaners today favour a variety of international genres and light popular Afrikaans music. American country and western music has enjoyed great popularity and has a strong following among many South Africans. Some also enjoy a social dance event called a sokkie . The South African rock band Seether has a hidden track on their album Karma and Effect titled Kom Saam Met My ("Come With Me"), sung in Afrikaans. There is also an underground rock music movement and bands like the controversial Fokofpolisiekar ('Fuck-off-police-car') have a large following. The television Channel MK (channel) also supports local Afrikaans music and mainly screens videos from the Afrikaans Rock genre. Afrikaner classical musicians include the pianists Wessel van Wyk, Ben Schoeman, and Petronel Malan , and the music departments of the various universities (Pretoria , Stellenbosch , Potchefstroom , Free State ) that started as Afrikaans universities still are renowned. In the 20th century, Mimi Coertse was an internationally renowned opera singer. She is also known as African Lieder interpreter by Stephanus Le Roux Marais . The world-renowned UNISA music exams include a section of South African contemporary music, which acknowledges Afrikaner composers. The contemporary musical Ons vir jou ('Us for you'), dealing with the Second Boer War, featured a book by Deon Opperman and a score by Sean Else and Johan Vorster of the band Eden . Afrikaner film musicals flourished in the 1950s and 1960s, and have returned in the 21st century with two popular films, Liefling and Pretville, featuring singers such as Bobby van Jaarsveld , Steve Hofmeyr , and Kevin Leo. Cuisine Afrikaner cuisine has contributed three unique terms to the South African lexicon, namely boerekos ('farmer/Boer food'), potjiekos ('small pot food') and braaivleis ('grilled meat'; frequently just braai, 'grilled'), although the latter (meaning "grilled meat") has actually expanded to a common South African habit. A typical recipe for boerekos consists of meat (usually roasted in a pan or oven), vegetables such as green beans, roots or peas, and starch such as potatoes or rice , with sauce made in the pot in which the meat is cooked. The dish can also use pumpkins or sweet potatoes , and some of the ingredients may be further processed into pampoenkoekies ('pumpkin biscuits', pumpkin baked in a kind of puff) or plaasboontjies ("Farm beans") consisting of green beans cooked and crushed with potatoes and onions. Afrikaners eat most types of meat such as mutton, beef, chicken, pork and various game species, but the meat of draft animals such as horses and donkeys is rarely eaten and is not part of traditional cuisine. East Indian influence emerges in dishes such as bobotie and curry, and the use of turmeric and other spices in cooking. Afrikaner households often eat combinations such as pap-and-sausage, meat curry and rice, and even fish and chips (although the latter are bought rather than self-prepared). Other traditional Afrikaner dishes include biltong , droëwors , koeksisters , melktert , and a variety of traditionally homemade but increasingly storebought pastries. Sport Rugby , cricket , golf and shot-put are the most popular sports among Afrikaners. Rugby in particular is considered one of the central pillars of the Afrikaner community. The national rugby team, the Springboks , did not compete in the first two rugby world cups in 1987 and 1991 because of anti-apartheid sporting boycotts of South Africa, but later on the Springboks won the 1995 , 2007 , 2019 and 2023 Rugby World Cups. Boeresport ('farmer/Boer sport') also played a big role in the Afrikaner history. It consisted of a variety of sports like tug of war , three-legged races, jukskei , skilpadloop ('tortoise walk') and other games. Numismatics The world's first ounce-denominated gold coin, the Krugerrand , was struck at the South African Mint on 3 July 1967. The name Krugerrand was derived from Kruger (after president Paul Kruger ) and the rand monetary unit of South Africa. In April 2007, the South African Mint coined a collectors R1 gold coin commemorating the Afrikaner people as part of its cultural series, depicting the Great Trek across the Drakensberg mountains. Institutions Cultural The Afrikaanse Taal en Kultuurvereniging ("Afrikaans Language and Culture Association"), referred to by its initials, ATKV, promotes Afrikaans language and culture. Voortrekkers is a youth movement for Afrikaners in South Africa and Namibia with a membership of over 10,000 active members to promote cultural values, maintaining norms and standards as Christians, and being accountable members of public society. Political The vast majority of Afrikaners supported the Democratic Alliance (DA), the official opposition party, in the 2014 general election . The DA is a liberal party and a full member of Liberal International . Smaller numbers are involved in nationalist or separatist political organisations. The Freedom Front Plus (FF+) is an Afrikaner ethnic political party which lobbies for minority rights to be extended to Afrikaners. The FF+ is also leading the Volkstaat initiative and is closely associated with the small town of Orania . Then-Freedom Front Plus leader Pieter Mulder served as Deputy Minister of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries in the Cabinet of President Jacob Zuma from 2009 to 2014. Very few Afrikaners vote for the ruling ANC . Some prominent Afrikaner ANC politicians include Derek Hanekom , Marthinus van Schalkwyk , Andries Nel , Gert Oosthuizen and Carl Niehaus . In an online poll of the Beeld newspaper during November 2012, in which nearly 11,000 Afrikaners participated, 42% described themselves as conservative and 36% as liberal. In the 2019 general elections , the FF+'s support surged in former strongholds of the DA.Senior FF+ member Philip van Staden said that his party had grown significantly in the election due to the DA leader Mmusi Maimane 's positions on race and ethnic identity resulting in the estrangement of many Afrikaans-speaking white voters. The party has since gone on to win previous DA wards with concentrated Afrikaner populations. Notable people Main article: List of Afrikaners See also South Africa portal Wikimedia Commons has media related to Afrikaners . Wikiquote has quotations related to Afrikaners . Afrikaners in Zimbabwe Afrikaner Calvinism Afrikaner nationalism Afrikaner-Jews Afrikaans-speaking population of South Africa Boer Cape Dutch Huguenots in South Africa Afrikaner Argentines BACK TO THE TOP OF THE PAGE

Advertisements South African Tours suite of properties can help you achieve your business goals by reaching millions of users worldwide. Unlock New Opportunities with South African Tours Germany At South African Tours, we connect your brand with a global audience passionate about South Africa, Wildlife Safaris, South Africa Cuisines & Foods, Traffic & Brakeing News. Transport to get around & Places of Attractions and much more to enjoy. With a reach of over 15 million users across our platforms and an additional 6 million through email and social media, we can help you achieve your business goals with tailored partnership solutions. Our Story Placing content with South African Tours means working with the best of the best in international English news sites. Their writers are superbly skilled at understanding the goals of each content piece. 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From the days of the Voortrekkers, we have been packing …Start new topics, discuss, talk, chat, joke with other campers. Comment or give suggestions, advice and help on caravan parks, camp sites, holiday resorts, destinations, businesses, products, road conditions, vehicles, caravans and much more... View More Daily Horoscopes Astrology.com is the leading astrology media brand. With personalized readings and a vast library of astrology information, our site has the most to offer for beginners, learners, and professionals alike. Astrology.com offers cutting edge content, fresh daily horoscopes, detailed astrology reports, and a hyper-personalized subscription service, Astrology+ . Coming from a team who loves astrology as much as you do, Astrology+ is the first service to offer real-time transit notifications, birth chart analysis, live Q&As, and personalized moon reports—all in one place! Recognized by Digiday for Best Overall Design, with authenticity at the core of our ethos, we are proud to represent professional astrologers of all practices and backgrounds—making our site perfectly attuned for both the astro-curious and astro-serious. View More South African Cuisine & Foods South Africa, often referred to as the “Rainbow Nation “, offers a vibrant tapestry of cultures, each contributing to the country’s unique and diverse culinary landscape. From the fragrant spices of Cape Malay cooking to the hearty, rustic flavors of Afrikaner dishes, South African cuisine is a testament to the country’s rich cultural heritage and history. Here are 50 Traditional South African Foods View More Truck Stops in South Africa A.C. Braby (Pty) Ltd is the largest and longest established specialist business directory publisher in Southern Africa having been in continuous operation for 115 years. Brabys has local operations throughout Southern Africa and the Indian Ocean Islands and publishes a large range of specialist business directories which is invaluable for business to business communication and promotional opportunities. With expansion came diversification. Brabys now produces tourist guides, tourist maps, town and city brochures, and official publications. Calendars and diaries are also in the expanded portfolio of the company's activities. The internet offering Brabys.Com is the most comprehensive online business directory for Southern Africa and the Indian Ocean Islands. It is the premier guide for information on businesses, community, government, recreation and entertainment and, with the enhanced search fields, is searchable by business type, business name, telephone and a helpful dialing/postal code search. Brabys.Com online mapping is highly sophisticated with well developed new electronic offering, featuring a comprehensive coverage of South Africa including distance charts. The acquisition of Ananzi, South Africa's top search engine and promoting Brabys.Com has resulted in increased usage of the directories and thus entrenched Brabys leading position in online directories. View More Blue Train in South Africa About the Blue Train Treat yourself with an unforgettable experience aboard one of South Africa’s leading luxury trains. This 5 star, 54 hour experience offers you around-the-clock butler service, 2 lounge cars (smoking and non-smoking), an observation car, carriages with gold-tinted picture windows and fully carpeted and soundproofed suites, all with en-suite bathrooms. Situated behind the train’s engine is the Club car, where you can enjoy a Cuban cigar served after dinner while sipping on cognac, or any drink of your choice. If a game of backgammon, chess or cards is not for you, browse our library selection, enjoy the big screen or get lost in thought gazing up at the star-lit African sky. Afternoon High Tea and after-dinner drinks are served in the Lounge car, situated in the middle of the train. When not in use as a Conference car, the Observation car serves as an extension of the Lounge Car. Dine with friends or enjoy a romantic dinner for two in the elegant Dining car. You can also choose to dine in the privacy of your own suite. Our on-board chefs prepare dishes of the highest standard, regularly refreshing the menu and using only the freshest local ingredients. There is something to suite every taste, including Halaal, Kosher, gluten-free of vegan. Simply notify us at the time of reservation and our chefs will prepare a meal suited to your needs. Dinner is elegant, with the dress code being formal. Tasteful background music compliments the evening. The Dining car can accommodate 42 guests in a sitting, with 2 sittings when needed. View More Hotels & Resturants 1 Best Value of 745 South Africa Hotels with Restaurants "Impeccable dining experience and very professional staff from housekeeping, restaurant staff, rangers, trackers... everyone will make your stay feel special!" "The rooms were amazing, the housekeeping was incredible, the restaurant was amazing (during one lunch, we got to see elephants playing in the lake in front of it, as well as buffalos, giraffes and impalas)." Visit hotel website View More Global Weather Reports In study after study AccuWeather has been proven as the most statistically accurate source of weather forecasts and warnings. 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Dramatically battling to be the best, Formula 1 drivers are more like fighter pilots than sportspeople. Only 20 get the chance to compete, and they push themselves – and their incredible machines – to the very limit. Who are the F1 teams? Formula 1 is a team sport. It needs to be to change all 4 tyres on a car in under 2 seconds! F1 teams design and build their cars and get them ready to race. Each has their own history. Each has their own unique approach. All want to be the fastest. But who should you root for? F1 Explains F1 doesn't stop at the chequered flag. Presented by Katie Osborne and Christian Hewgill, our F1 Explains podcast brings big-name guests from the sport together to answer fan questions about Formula 1. View More Frankfurt Airport Departure & Arrivals Frankfurt Airport’s parking facilities are very busy. Therefore, we ask all passengers to pre-book a parking space online in advance, well before the date of their journey. If a booking for the desired parking period is no longer possible, we recommend traveling by public transport. FRA is excellently linked to the railway network of Deutsche Bahn. The airport is also well served by …Frankfurt Airport (German : Flughafen Frankfurt Main [ˈfluːkhaːfn̩ ˈfʁaŋkfʊʁt ˈmaɪn] ) (IATA : FRA, ICAO : EDDF), is Germany's main international airport by passenger numbers,[7] located in Frankfurt , Germany's fifth-largest city. Its official name according to the German Aeronautical Information Publication is Frankfurt Main Airport.[8] The airport is operated by Fraport and serves as the main hub for Lufthansa , including Lufthansa City Airlines , Lufthansa CityLine and Lufthansa Cargo as well as Condor and AeroLogic . It covers an area of 2,300 hectares (5,683 acres) of land[9] and features two passenger terminals with capacity for approximately 65 million passengers per year; four runways; and extensive logistics and maintenance facilities. View More Breaking World News Daily The BBC is the world’s leading public service broadcaster We’re impartial and independent, and every day we create distinctive, world-class programmes and content which inform, educate and entertain millions of people in the UK and around the world. We do this across: A portfolio of television services, including the UK’s most-watched channel BBC One and our multi award-winning channels for children, as well as national and regional television programmes and services across England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales Ten UK-wide radio networks, providing the best live music broadcasting in the UK, as well as speech radio which informs, educates and entertains. We also have two national radio services each in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland and local radio stations across England and the Channel Islands, providing an invaluable and unique service to listeners across the UK Our digital services including BBC News, Sport, Weather CBBC and CBeebies, iPlayer and BBC Sounds, BBC Red Button and our vast archive BBC World Service television, radio and online on more than 40 languages Established by a Royal Charter , the BBC is principally funded through the licence fee paid by UK households. Our role is to fulfil our mission and promote our Public Purposes . Our commercial operations including BBC Studios, the BBC’s award-winning production company and world-class distributor, provide additional revenue for investment in new programming and services for UK audiences. The BBC’s Board ensures that we deliver our mission and public purposes which are set out in the Charter. The Executive Committee is responsible for day-to-day management. 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Within South Africa lies the independent kingdom of Lesotho. South Africa is divided into nine regions or provinces . South Africa boasts 3 capital cities: Pretoria (executive), Cape Town (legislative) and Bloemfontein (judicial). The national currency is the South African Rand. South Africa is a popular destination for European and North American travelers. Tourists from most part of Europe and all from North America do not require visas. View More Traveling to South Africa Encountering Africa’s iconic Big 5 (elephant, rhino, lion, leopard and buffalo) is a major item on any safari goer’s bucket list. South Africa is one of the very few places on Earth where you’re able to tick off all five in one day. Easily Combine Bush, Beach & Vine Cape Town’s gorgeous coastline offers its visitors sun-kissed beaches, while the famous Cape Winelands will delight any gourmet. Superb infrastructure and daily domestic flights make combining a Kruger safari with a beach holiday a piece of cake. World-class Service & Amenities Experience culinary excellence from award-winning chefs in Cape Town, the Winelands, and Kruger’s private reserves and concessions. Plus enjoy top-notch service and amenities like spas, gyms and art galleries in each location. Fantastic Logistics Daily commercial flights link all the major cities, chartered airplanes can get you to safari lodges with their own private airstrips, and a self-drive holiday along the beautiful Garden Route is made safe and easy thanks to well-maintained road networks. View More South African Music News Dylan Tori Unveils ‘Daydreamer’ – South African singer-songwriter Dylan Tori unveils his latest ballad, ‘Daydreamer’ – a powerful, piano-driven track that explores the creative struggle and the pursuit of hope amidst the fast pace and complexities of modern life. Following his previous bootscoothin’ boogie single, ‘Dance A Little More ’, Dylan Tori’s ‘Daydreamer’ powerfully captures the tension between the passionate pursuit of artistic expression and the overwhelming realities of today’s world. With evocative lyrics that resonate deeply with creatives and dreamers everywhere, Dylan Tori reminds us that even in a chaotic and often indifferent environment the human spirit relentlessly yearns for connection, purpose, and unity. Originally conceived on guitar, ‘Daydreamer’ underwent a transformative evolution in the studio. Renowned producer and artist Mark Beling reimagined the track with a sophisticated, piano-driven arrangement enriched by subtle string layers. This innovative production not only deepens the emotional resonance of Dylan’s soulful vocals but also enhances the song’s universal message of hope and renewal. Dylan Tori adds: “’Daydreamer’ is incredibly personal. It’s about the struggle of finding meaning amid global uncertainty and the everyday pressures that challenge our creative spirit. I wrote this song to remind all of us that even when the world seems overwhelming, our dreams and our hope can light the way forward. I hope it inspires every listener to embrace that shared journey towards a better, more united world.” View More Visting Maps in South Africa On the 27th of July 2023 South African Tourism unveiled Siya Kolisi as the new Global Brand Advocate. In an exciting event hosted at Hotel Sky in Sandton the well curated event saw some of South Africa’s most exceptional figures in sports, arts and culture converge for robust conversation about excelling as South African’s. It was also an opportune moment to launch “The Best Of Us” visual content piece that features Siya Kolisi and South Africa’s beautiful landscapes and people. South Africa is a country like no other. It is the ideal destination for those seeking a unique sensory/spiritual reawakening, a place that leaves its visitors feeling inspired, enriched and rejuvenated. South Africa gives travellers the opportunity to reconnect with real life South Africa offers a diversity of options to suit every traveller that will excite and revive you, that will suit your pocket, that will answer your every need and desire. South Africa is a welcoming, friendly and fun destination, with people known for warmth, hospitality and authenticity. So... Come to South AfricaThe We Do Tourism campaign is aimed at each and every South African! It is about each of us seeing the value of tourism, understanding how it impacts our lives, and how we can play a role in growing it. View More South Africa Rainbow Nation Rainbow nation" is a term coined by Archbishop Desmond Tutu to describe post-apartheid South Africa after South Africa 's first democratic election in 1994. The phrase was elaborated upon by President Nelson Mandela in his first month of office, when he proclaimed: "Each of us is as intimately attached to the soil of this beautiful country as are the famous jacaranda trees of Pretoria and the mimosa trees of the bushveld – a rainbow nation at peace with itself and the world. The term was intended to encapsulate the unity of multi-culturalism and the coming-together of people of many different nations, in a country once identified with the strict division of white and black under the Apartheid regime.[2] In a series of televised appearances, Tutu spoke of the "Rainbow People of God". As a cleric, this metaphor drew upon the Old Testament story of Noah's Flood and its ensuing rainbow of peace. Within South African indigenous cultures, the rainbow is associated with hope and a bright future. The secondary metaphor the rainbow allows is more political. Unlike the primary metaphor, the room for different cultural interpretations of the colour spectrum is slight. Whether the rainbow has Isaac Newton 's seven colours, or five of the Nguni (i.e. Xhosa and Zulu ) cosmology, the colours are not taken literally to represent particular cultural groups. View More The Big Five of South Africa Even though you know that Africa and South Africa are so much more than the Big Five, the familiar images soon begin playing in your mind: lions roaring; elephants trumpeting; buffalos lurking in long grass; rhinos standing stately under a thorn tree; leopards prowling in the gathering darkness. You’ve seen the Big Five in books and you’ve seen them on TV. But it’s time to come and see them for yourself. The real thing. In person. And there’s no better place for this than South Africa, which offers the most exciting, memorable and exhilarating experience of your life – coming face to face with the Big Five. Origin of the name How did these five animals – the lion, elephant, buffalo, rhinoceros and leopard – come to be called the Big Five? It was originally a hunting term used by the so-called ‘great white hunters’ in the hunting heyday of the 19th and early 20thcenturies, when professional hunters bagged as many trophies as possible in as short a time as possible. Considered a rite of passage for seasoned travellers, everybody from American presidents to European royalty and heads of state came to Africa to shoot a large, dangerous animal. The Big Five quickly became known as the most dangerous animals to hunt on foot, and the name stuck – although now ‘shooting’ is done through a camera lens. View More Radio SAM Broadcasting Studios Germany We built ‘Radio SAM Broadcaster Germany’ for YOU…….. For you to NEVER miss that amazing event. We strive to, at all times, try to take the hassle out of finding out where that favourite artist is performing, have a look at some other artists also performing, and at what venue it is going to be held, at what time, and maybe it will be the end of life as you know it. We love radio! Radio SAM Broadcaster Germany makes life a little easier for everyone who feels the same way. We offer you the opportunity to listen to internet radio from all over the world in a particularly uncomplicated manner and free of charge. With the push of a button, you can also record it very easily thanks to Radio SAM Broadcaster Germany. Don't you ever want to miss your favorite internet radio radio again? Our tools make it possible! You can put together your own program in the Radio SAM Broadcaster Germany player, in the app and directly on our website. This is then conveniently recorded and saved for you. 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Camping & Hiking in South Africa South Africa’s best campsites Posted on 15 May 2017 South Africa is full of gorgeous campsites and deciding where to book your next camping holiday can get a little overwhelming. To help narrow down the hundreds of options, we’ve put together a list of our best campsites in South Africa. Whether on the banks of a river, nestled in the mountains, or walking distance from the beach, we’ve got a beautiful campsite waiting for you. Take your pick, and as ever, let us know (in the comments below) if you have a favourite campsite we’ve missed. And please remember to confirm availability and latest prices with each campsite before travelling. Looking for campsites near Joburg? Try these 10 great campsites for a Joburg break . Campsites in Limpopo 1. Zvakanaka Farm, Soutpansberg Location: -22.977981, 29.952550 Zvakanaka Farm, Soutpansberg. On top of the Soutpansberg, just north of Louis Trichardt, the beautiful Zvakanaka Farm is the perfect stop en route to Zimbabwe, Tuli or northern Kruger. The four campsites are private and well-spaced, and the two larger stands have a boma for extra shade and protection from the elements. There’s a small, communal pool a short distance away and the shared ablutions are neat, tidy and beautifully built, with an attention to detail that’s so often lacking in larger, public campsites. Be sure to bring your binos for the excellent bird life, and your walking shoes to tackle some of the many short trails around the farm and up the nearby ridge. Number of stands: 4 private, plus a beautiful cabin and cottage Electricity: Yes, at 2 stands Braai facilities: Yes Shade: Plenty of trees. Large shade/shelter at the 2 powered stands Ground cover: Grass and dirt Pets: No Nearby activities: Hiking and birding Cost: R100 per person (powered) and R75 per person (no power). Max 10 per stand. Kids under 12 half price, and under 4 free Contact: Tel 0844004595, zka.co.za 2. Mazhou Campsite, Mapungubwe National Park Location: -22.240303, 29.408439 View from Mapungubwe Hill, Mapungubwe National Park. Mazhou is a peaceful campsite of 10 stands, surrounded by absolutely breathtaking scenery. Mapungubwe National Park is a World Heritage Site and the camp is an ideal base to start your exploration. Go on sunset or night drives or explore the park on foot with the guided walks. Don’t miss the guided Heritage Walk which takes you to a graveyard on Mapungubwe Hill. The site has a wonderful sense of history and the views from on top are breathtaking. Number of stands: 10 Electricity: Yes Braai facilities: Yes Shade: Partial trees Ground cover: Grass and dirt Pets: No Nearby activities: Museum at the main gate (R55 per person). Daily, guided ‘Heritage Tour’ to the top of Mapungubwe Hill (R230 per person) Important info: Mazhou allows caravans, but no caravans allowed in the eastern section of the park. Closest fuel is Musina, 70km away. Check gate times before travelling Cost: From R265 per stand (2 people), and from R82 per person thereafter (max 6 per stand). R44 daily conservation fee (not applicable to Wild Card holders). Full rates and tariffs here Contact: Tel 0155347923/24, sanparks.org Also read: 5 unusual Gauteng getaways – these are not average B&Bs Campsites in the North West Province 3. Bush Camps, Botsalano Game Reserve Location: -25.560855, 25.709919 For an affordable taste of the Kalahari, Botsalano Game Reserve is a prize – a thornveld escape that’s close to Joburg and has an abundance of springbok, gemsbok, buffalo and giraffe. With luck, you might even spot a rhino. Four rustic bush camps, each with basic ablutions (cold/donkey boiler showers), are scattered around the park in unfenced bush where blue and violet-eared waxbills busy themselves in the acacias. Botsalano is an excellent first stop for trips into Botswana. Number of stands: 4 bush camps. Pre-erected safari tents also available Electricity: No. 3 of the 4 camps have a donkey for hot water Braai facilities: Yes, but bring own grid Shade: Partial thorn trees Ground cover: Sand Pets: No Nearby activities: Game drives and birding Important info: Can get very hot during the day and cold at night Cost: R250 per stand (sleeps 8). Extra R20 per person up to 12 people. Park fees R40 per adult, R25 for kids 2-12 years old. R10 per vehicle, R20 per caravan Contact: Tel 0183868900, botsalano@nwpb.co.za , tourismnorthwest.co.za Campsites in the Northern Cape 4. Augrabies Rest Camp, Augrabies Falls National Park Location: -28.593904, 20.337711 Augrabies National Park. Image credit: Isak Pretorius . Augrabies National Park is best known for its wonderful main waterfall which, on average, dumps over 300 cubic metres of water per second down its 56m-high face. In full flood that figure has gone up to an an astonishing 7800 cubic metres per second, but if things get that wet you probably won’t be camping. The campsite itself is typically SANParks – neat and tidy, with communal ablutions, kitchen and laundry facilities. There are short trails, viewpoints, and a restaurant, and mountain biking is permitted on the main roads. Number of stands: 40 Electricity: Yes, at all stands Braai facilities: Yes Shade: Plenty of trees Ground cover: Grass and dirt Pets: No Nearby activities: Waterfall viewpoints, self-drive game viewing, hiking trails, cycling and guided night drives Important info: Communal ablutions and kitchen wit two-plate stoves and sinks Cost: From R235 per stand (2 people), and from R82 per person thereafter (max 6 per stand). R44 daily conservation fee (not applicable to Wild Card holders). Full rates and tariffs here Contact: Tel 0544529200, sanparks.org 5. Potjiespram Campsite, ?Ai-?Ais/Richtersveld Transfrontier Park Location: -28.074629, 16.963089 Situated in South African’s far northwestern corner, right on the Namibian border, the Richtersveld is for experienced campers looking to get as far as possible away from it all. You’ll need to bring everything with you to Potjiespram , although drinking water isn’t a problem as the campsite lies right on the banks of the Orange River. Winter and spring are the best times to visit, when the temperatures are cooler and the region’s famous flowers are on show. Number of stands: 18, all along the river Electricity: No. Cold showers only Braai facilities: Braaiing allowed, but bring your own grid Shade: Partial tree cover Ground cover: Sand and dirt Pets: No Nearby activities: Fantastic flowers between June and October (rain dependent). Various guided hiking trails available. Swimming in the Orange River Important info: Bring everything you need for your stay. There are no shops in the park, but fuel and drinks can be purchased at Sendelingsdrift. Day-time temperatures can reach 50°C in summer Cost: From R225 per stand (2 people), and from R82 per person thereafter (max 6 per stand). R70 daily conservation fee (not applicable to Wild Card holders). Full rates and tariffs here Contact: Tel 0278311506 sanparks.org 6. De Hoop Campsite, Richtersveld Location: -28.183206, 17.177670 De Hoop Campsite, Richtersveld. Image credit: Teagan Cunniffe . Not to be confused with the nature reserve in the Western Cape of the same name, De Hoop Campsite lies southeast of Potjiespram, upstream on the Orange River. Enjoy the best of both worlds as you camp on the banks of the Orange, surrounded by the beautiful Richtersveld bush. Like Potjiespram Campsite, De Hoop is definitely one for the more experienced camper. It offers a brilliantly rustic environment, literally in the middle of nowhere between South Africa and Namibia. Number of stands: 12, along the river Electricity: No. Cold showers only Braai facilities: Braaiing allowed, but bring your own grid Shade: Partial tree cover Ground cover: Sand and dirt Pets: No Nearby activities: Swimming and canoeing conditions are perfect on this quiet part of the river. There are no rapids close to the campsite Important info: Bring everything you need for your stay. There are no shops in the park, but fuel and drinks can be purchased at Sendelingsdrift. Day-time temperatures can reach 50°C in summer Cost: From R225 per stand (2 people), and from R82 per person thereafter (max 6 per stand). R70 daily conservation fee (not applicable to Wild Card holders). Full rates and tariffs here Contact: Tel 0278311506 sanparks.org 7. Kambro Campsite and Farm Stall, Britstown Location: -30.416351, 23.565799 Kambro Campsite and Farm Stall, Britstown. Kambro Accommodation and Farm Stall has six grassed campsites, each discretely spaced, with electricity, a light and a private braai. With no major city lights for over 200km in any direction, Kambro is a wonderful stargazing spot and the perfect place to enjoy the silence and wide open spaces of the Karoo. Be sure to check out the selection of preserves and biscuits in the farm stall; the springbok pies are also excellent. Number of stands: 6, plus 10 self-catering cottages Electricity: Yes Braai facilities: Yes Shade: Each stand has a tree, but some are more leafy than others Ground cover: Grass Pets: Well-behaved dogs (on a leash) by prior arrangement only Nearby activities: Kambro is a fantastic place to stargaze Important info: Meals (book in advance), beer and wine available at the farmstall which is also packed with delicious goodies Cost: R180 per stand (sleeps 4) Contact: Tel 0833056668, kambroaccom.co.za 8. Middelwater Camping, Carnarvon Location: -31.235512, 22.210777 Middelwater Camping, Carnarvon. At Middelwater Campsite , pitch your tent under the trees, and move into the open when the stars come out. There’s a dam for swimming (rain dependent), plus a small, but neat ablution and donkey shower. After a hot day behind the wheel, the cool shade feels like an oasis, and if you climb up the small koppie across the dam, you can’t help but think that you’ve found the only patch of green in the entire Great Karoo. Number of stands: Cosy, open-plan area under tall trees Electricity: No Braai facilities: Yes, but bring your own grid Shade: Full tree cover Ground cover: Dirt and sand Pets: Yes Nearby activities: Swimming in the dam (rain dependent), hike in the surrounding veld, fish and cycle Cost: R180 per stand (sleeps 4) Contact: Tel 0746470447, carnarvon.co.za 9. Die Mond, Tankwa Karoo Location: -32.543689, 19.542150 Die Mond, Tankwa Karoo. The lush green grass and wide, cool waters of Grootrivier make Die Mond Campsite a true oasis in the hot, dusty Tankwa Karoo. After hours of unrelenting rock and sand in all directions, it’s wonderful to feel the lawn beneath your bare feet as you dive from the bank into the deep, refreshing river. There are no preallocated sites, it’s first come first served, but there’s plenty of space along the riverbank, and if you are lucky enough to get away midweek, you’ll probably have the whole place to yourself anyway. Number of stands: Large, open-plan grassy area along the riverbank, plus 7 self-catering cottages Electricity: No Braai facilities: Yes, portable wheeled drums. Bring your own grid Shade: Plenty of trees Ground cover: Grass Pets: No Nearby activities: Canoe, fish and swim in the river, visit Tankwa Karoo National Park, hike in the surrounding veld Cost: R70 per person Contact: Tel 0233170668, facebook.com 10. Ymansdam, Tankwa Karoo Location: -32.087517, 19.966385 Ymansdam, Tankwa Karoo. Image credit: safarinow.com Ymansdam has one main stand and a single, small ablution, and three further stands nearby that can accommodate extra campers. This is a great spot to book out with a single, large group and makes an excellent base from which to explore the nearby Tankwa Karoo National Park. Be sure to climb the peak just north of the camp – you’ll be rewarded with beautiful views of the plains to the south. Number of stands: 1 main campsite near the ablutions, plus 3 additional stands nearby, and a self-catering cottage Electricity: No Braai facilities: Yes, bring your own grid Shade: Limited tree cover Ground cover: Sand Pets: Yes Nearby activities: Swim in the small dam, explore Tankwa Karoo National Park and test your 4×4 on the nearby passes Important info: 1 shower and toilet serves the entire campsite Cost: R80 per person, with space for up 4 tents on the main stand Contact: Tel 0725054121 11. Coastal Camp Sites, Namaqua National Park Location: -30.828925, 17.575889 Coastal camp sites, Namaqua National Park. It’s hard to single out any specific camping spot from Namaqua National Park’s nine coastal camping sites , which are spread out along 40km of pristine west coast shoreline. Without a 4×4 however, you’ll be limited to the two southern campsites near the Groen River Gate – Delwerskamp and Groen River Camp. North of the gate, the track gets very sandy and 4X4 is definitely required. If we had to pick one site, it would be Kwass se Baai, about 20km north of Groen River. It’s one of the smaller campsites, with only four stands, and there’s a beautiful sandy beach nearby – perfect for west coast sundowners! Number of stands: 9 separate campsites with a total of 46 stands Electricity: No Braai facilities: Braai pit. Bring your own grid Shade: No Ground cover: Sand Pets: No Important info: Wonderful place for spring flowers, although the park gets extremely busy during flower season. Bring everything with you, including drinking water Cost: From R135 per stand (sleeps 6). R37 daily conservation fee (not applicable to Wild Card holders). Full rates and tariffs here Contact: Tel 0276721948, sanparks.org Campsites in the Free State 12. Gariep, A Forever Resort, Gariep Dam Location: -30.605555, 25.502290 Gariep, A Forever Resort, Gariep Dam. Image credit: forevergariep.co.za Gariep Dam campsite is an excellent stopover on the long N1 drive between Joburg and the Cape. It’s neat, clean and covered in lush grass, with beautiful views (especially at sunrise) over the small yacht-filled bay that lies directly in front of the campsite. There’s plenty for the kids to do – Putt-Putt, tennis, trampolines, and more – plus swimming and canoeing on the dam. If you have a bit of time, the guided tour of the main dam wall and turbines is definitely worth it too. Number of stands: 106 stands, plus 16 private caravan sites (closed from May to August) and a range of self-catering accommodation Electricity: Yes Braai facilities: Yes Shade: Plenty of trees Ground cover: Grass Pets: No Nearby activities: Fishing, boating and canoeing on the dam, guided dam wall tours, swimming pool, on-site restaurant and bar, plus plenty of activities for kids Important info: All stands are first come first serve. One vehicle per stand (additional vehicles at an extra fee) Cost: From R135 per stand, plus R55 per person (max 6 per stand) Contact: Tel 0517540045, forevergariep.co.za Campsites in the Western Cape 13. Koningskop, Citrusdal Location: -32.499003, 18.848462 Koningskop, Citrusdal. Image credit: koningskop.com Relax on the green lawns of this beautiful rooibos and citrus farm, just west of the N7 between Citrusdal and Clanwilliam. You can explore the farm trails on foot or bicycle, and swim or fish in the dams. There are also two 4×4 trails which head up into the nearby mountains, with beautiful views of the Swartland and Cederberg. Number of stands: 50, plus three self-catering cottages Electricity: Yes Braai facilities: Yes Shade: Plenty of tree cover Ground cover: Grass Pets: No Nearby activities: Hiking, mountain biking, fishing in the dam, and 4×4 trails Important info: Restaurant only open during peak season or by arrangement. No loud music allowed. Minimum four-night stay during holiday season Cost: R120 per person, kids 2-11 years R65 Contact: Tel 0761752520, koningskop.com 14. Jamaka Organic Farm & Resort, Cederberg Location: -32.341164, 19.028404 Jamaka Organic Farm & Resort, Cederberg. Image credit: jamaka.co.za Beautifully situated along the bubbling Rondegat River, these shady, relaxed campsites are some of the best in the Cederberg. Rooibos, mangoes and a variety of citrus are organically farmed in the surrounding valley and harvest time is a bustle of activity. The two camping areas each have their own rock pools to swim in, but book one of the many river-side stands and you’ll have your own private stretch to splash around in as well. For the more energetic there are also five hiking trails which you can join from the farm, and from there explore the surrounding mountains. Number of stands: 2 camping areas along the riverbank with 81 stands, plus 11 self-catering cottages Electricity: Yes Braai facilities: Yes (pit or drum). Bring your own grid Shade: Plenty of tree cover Ground cover: Some grass, but mostly sand and dirt Pets: No Nearby activities: Hiking trails, swimming in the river and rock pools Important info: Wood and basic supplies sold on site. Communal fridge/freezer available Cost: From R180 per stand (sleeps 4) Contact: Tel 0274822801/0824106417, jamaka.co.za 15. Kromrivier Campsite, Cederberg Location: -32.539149, 19.282041 Kromrivier Campsite, Cederberg. Kromrivier Campsite is a working farm bordering the Cederberg Wilderness Area and is ideal for those seeking a quiet and tranquil break. The campsite lies along on the banks of the Krom River and the children will love looking at the farm animals and swimming in the mountain streams. Those looking for a bit of adventure can go rock climbing or horse-back riding and the farm also has a shop and restaurant where you can buy basic supplies and farm produce. Number of stands: 18, with private ablutions, plus self-catering chalets Electricity: Yes Braai facilities: Yes, but bring your own grid Shade: Partial tree cover Ground cover: Grass Pets: No Nearby activities: Horse riding (book in advance), swimming, hiking, rock climbing, fishing, mountain biking Important info: No cell reception. Breakfast, lunch and dinner served at the restaurant, but needs to be booked in advance Cost: R100 per person Contact: Tel 0274822807, cederbergpark.com 16. Driehoek Tourist Farm, Cederberg Location: -32.442490, 19.189830 Driehoek Tourist Farm, Cederberg. Situated at the foot of Tafelberg, 20km from Algeria, Driehoek Farm is well forested for the region, making it perfect for summer camping in the Cederberg. The farm is the ideal base from which to hike the surroundings mountains and peaks and there are many great pools to swim in. You can also go hiking, horseback riding, cycling and fishing. Number of stands: 25, plus a variety of huts and cottages Electricity: Yes Braai facilities: Yes, bring your own grid Shade: Plenty of trees Ground cover: Grass Pets: No Nearby activities: Hiking, swimming, horse riding, mountain biking and fishing Important info: No cellphone reception. Driehoek wines can be purchased at reception Cost: From R290 per stand (sleeps 4) Contact: Tel 0274822828, cederberg-accommodation.co.za 17. Beaverlac, Grootfontein Farm, Cederberg Location: -32.907872, 19.067480 Beaverlac, Grootfontein Farm, Cederberg. Image credit: beaverlac.co.za Beaverlac is an old favourite of the Cape camping crowd and rightly so. The river boasts plenty of deep rock pools and beautiful waterfalls in which to wash away the summer’s heat, and the caves around the farm are decorated with well-preserved rock paintings. Old hands should be aware that while in the past you never had to book in advance, these days you’ll need to register and login on their website before you can make a booking. Number of stands: Large, open-plan camping area Electricity: No Braai facilities: Yes, bring your own grid Shade: Partial tree cover Ground cover: Grass Pets: Yes (R50 per night) Nearby activities: Hiking and swimming in the awesome rock pools Important info: The shop sells basic supplies, including wood, beer and ice. No music or loud noise of any kind Cost: R60 per person, kids 4-17 years R40, and R30 per vehicle Contact: Tel 0229312945, beaverlac.co.za Also read: Top tips for camping at Beaverlac 18. Matroosberg Private Nature Reserve, Ceres Location: -33.330238, 19.611104 Matroosberg Private Nature Reserve, Ceres. Although this is one of the Western Cape’s most popular destinations to see snow , Matroosberg is also a perfect destination for a summer getaway. The fairly small and peaceful camping area is far removed from the chalets and houses in the reserve, in a shady pine tree area beside the Spek River. If you enjoy getting active, they offer abseiling, hiking, mountain biking, kloofing, horse riding and even target shooting. If, however, you just want to relax, you can walk to the rock pools and spend an afternoon swimming and soaking up the sun. Number of stands: 14 in the main campsite, plus private sites and self-catering cottages Electricity: No Braai facilities: Yes, bring your own grid Shade: Plenty of trees Ground cover: Mostly sand, with some grass Pets: Yes Nearby activities: There’s lots to do, from hiking to target shooting. Great place for winter snow Important info: No access after 9pm. No single night bookings over weekends Cost: From R55 per person Contact: Tel 0233122282, matroosberg.com 19. Miller’s Point Caravan Park, Simon’s Town Location: -34.228424, 18.469935 Miller’s Point, Simon’s Town. Miller’s Point Resort is 5km south of Simon’s Town, as you follow the M4 towards Cape Point. Large boulders line this stunning stretch of coastline with sheltered, sandy coves in between. The wind shadow protecting the northern side of the point makes for some beautiful, sheltered swimming areas – if you can stand the icy water! Number of stands: 16 Electricity: Yes Braai facilities: Communal braai area, bring your own grid Shade: Partial tree cover Ground cover: Grass Pets: No Nearby activities: Cape Point is just down the road, and in the other direction, Simon’s Town is full of interesting shops and great restaurants. the Boulders Beach penguin colony is also nearby Important info: Cost: R165 per stand (sleeps 6) Contact: Tel 0217861142 Also read: 26 affordable weekend getaways near Cape Town 20. Vloedbos Campsite, Caledon Location: -34.333374, 19.694399 Vloedbos Campsite, Caledon. Image credit: vloedbos.co.za Vloedbos is a Cape campsite specifically geared to families. Between the paintball and the table tennis and super tube, you’re sure to find something exciting to keep the kids occupied and you might even find time to have a few swings at the driving range yourself. There’s no music allowed in camp, and strict silence after 10pm, so a good night’s sleep is guaranteed. Number of stands: 46, plus various chalets and cabins Electricity: Yes Braai facilities: Yes Shade: Scattered trees Ground cover: Grass Pets: No Nearby activities: The pool, trampoline and super tube will keep the kids busy Important info: This is a family campsite so expect to find plenty of young kids around. R100 cash key deposit required for all vehicles. Shop sells basic supplies, but no alcohol Cost: From R350 per stand (sleeps 4), additional adults R85 each (max 6 per stand). Price increases during peak season Contact: Tel 0833591505, vloedbos.co.za 21. Victoria Bay Caravan Park, Victoria Bay Location: -34.004796, 22.547882 Victoria Bay Caravan Park, Victoria Bay. Victoria Bay is a popular surfing spot, frequented by sun-kissed board riders young and old. The two camping areas are perched half way up the surrounding cliffs and offer great views of the surfing action. The bay is small, with a restaurant and bar just off the beach, and a row of beachfront cottages along the western side. There’s also a tidal pool that’s safe for kids. A narrow promenade separates the cottages from the water and most who walk it wear a smile. Number of stands: 20 caravan stands on the Western Terrace, plus another separate camping area across the bay Electricity: Yes Braai facilities: Yes Shade: No Ground cover: Grass Pets: No Nearby activities: Surfing, fishing and exploring the Garden Route Important info: The Western Terrace usually only allows caravans during peak season, unless by prior arrangement Cost: From R220 to R440 per stand depending on the season (sleeps 6) Contact: Tel 0448890081, victoriabaycaravanpark.co.za Campsites in the Eastern Cape 22. Storms River Mouth Rest Camp, Garden Route National Park Location: -34.022236, 23.885529 Storms River Mouth Rest Camp, Garden Route National Park. Storms River Mouth Rest Camp is the jewel in the crown of the Garden Route National Park. Between the pounding surf and steep cliffs of indigenous forest, wood cabins, caravans and camping sites sit side by side along a beautiful, narrow strip of coastline. Many of the sea-facing stands are reserved for caravans, so if you’re in a tent, ask for stand numbers 101 to 112 to ensure the best sea views, but be aware that these stands don’t have power. Number of stands: 30 for tents and 82 for caravans, plus various self-catering chalets and cottages Electricity: Yes, but not at all stands Braai facilities: Yes, bring your own grid Shade: Limited. 38 to 47 are tucked into the forest and have some shade Ground cover: Grass Pets: No Nearby activities: Beautiful hiking trails and a range of adventure activities both inside and outside the park (tubing, zip lining, bungee jumping) Important info: The park has an excellent shop for most supplies, plus a restaurant Cost: From R300 per stand (for 2 people), plus R82 per additional adult (max 6 per stand). R49 daily conservation fee (not applicable to Wild Card holders). Full rates and tariffs here Contact: Tel 0422811607, sanparks.org Also read: Guide to Storms River – South Africa’s most adventurous town 23. Mvubu Campsite, Addo Elephant National Park Location: -33.340898, 25.360591 Addo Elephant National Park. Mvubu is a small campsite on the banks of the Sundays River in the Kabouga section of the Addo Elephant National Park and serves as a wonderful base for exploring the park while enjoying quiet evenings in the bush. If you’re not out exploring the park on self drives or hikes you can relax in the river and pools inside the camp or set out on a day of bird watching. Number of stands: 6 Electricity: No, but hot shower available Braai facilities: Yes, bring own wood and grid Shade: Partial shade at some sites Ground cover: Grass Pets: No Nearby activities: Swimming, fishing and canoeing on the Sundays River, game drives Important info: High clearance vehicle required. Bring your own drinking water Cost: R140 per stand (2 people), R60 per additional adult (max 4 per stand). R62 daily conservation fee (not applicable to Wild Card holders). Full rates and tariffs here Contact: Tel 0422338600, sanparks.org 24. Kudu Kaya Campsite, Baviaanskloof Location: -33.653132, 24.583987 Kudu Kaya Campsite, Baviaanskloof. Image credit: kudukaya.co.za Kudu Kaya is a working citrus, potato and tobacco farm on the eastern end of Baviaanskloof. Lush, indigenous forest surrounds the campsite, which hugs the banks of the Ysrivier, a small mountain stream, and there are hikes up into the surrounding mountains and rock pools. Each stand is tucked into its own small clearing in the forest, providing some privacy, and there’s also a large, private stand (number 16) with its own ablutions. Number of stands: 17, 1 private, plus 6 self-catering cabins Electricity: Yes Braai facilities: Yes, bring your own grid Shade: Plenty of tree cover Ground cover: Grass and dirt Pets: No Nearby activities: Mountain biking, hiking and swimming in the nearby rock pools. The farm owners will happily show interested guests around the farm on request Important info: Toilet paper not provided Cost: R80 per person, kids 5-12 half price Contact: Tel 0738621968, kudukaya.co.za 25. Bruintjieskraal, Baviaanskloof Location: -33.705347, 24.609979 Bruintjieskraal, Baviaanskloof. Image credit: bruintjieskraal.co.za Bruintjieskraal lies on the banks of the Groot River, 8km from the end of the tar road on the eastern edge of Baviaanskloof. The river is wide here, and ideal for swimming and fishing and there are plenty of short walks nearby. Each campsite has its own shower and toilet (cold water) and they’re well-spaced along the riverbank. Pick stands 11 to 14 for maximum privacy. Number of stands: 13, 4 more private, plus 3 self-catering chalets Electricity: No Braai facilities: Yes, bring your own grid Shade: Plenty of tree cover Ground cover: Grass, with some dirt Pets: By prior arrangement only Nearby activities: Fishing (bass, carp, barber), swimming, hiking Important info: Bring your own drinking water Cost: From R70 per person (low season). Kids under 9 half price Contact: Tel 0845150993, bruintjieskraal.co.za Also see: In photos – Baviaanskloof’s Leopard Trail 26. Karnmelkspruit River Resort, Lady Grey Location: -30.805977, 27.267700 Karnmelkspruit River Resort, Lady Grey. This small, intimate campsite is perfect for fishing and nature lovers. The facilities are basic, but neat and functional – all you need for a secluded camping trip, deep in the southern Maluti Mountains. The crystal-clear Karnmelkspruit runs right past the campsite and there’s 10km of fly fishing to be had along its course. Number of stands: 2 open-plan grass areas – 25 to 30 stands, plus 1 private, self-catering cottage Electricity: Only at the central ablution block Braai facilities: Communal, covered braai area at the ablutions Shade: Scattered small trees Ground cover: Grass Pets: Yes Nearby activities: Fly fishing along the spruit (R100 per rod per day), hiking, exploring the old railway tunnel nearby Important info: The 2.5km dirt track to the campsite is bumpy, but sedan-friendly if you go slow Cost: R180 per tent, plus R10 per person Contact: Tel 0845847036, facebook.com 27. Double Mouth Campsite, Morgan Bay Location: -32.724126, 28.313872 A 15-minute drive south of Morgan Bay you’ll find Double Mouth Campsite, a stunning, secluded site, surrounded by river, beach, cliffs and sea. There’s plenty of shade to camp under and loads of space for the kids to play. The sea can get a bit rough along this coast, but there are plenty of rock pools to explore at low tide, and the river and estuary are safe to swim in. There’s excellent shore fishing, and wonderful views from the cliffs above. Number of stands: 30 Electricity: Yes (caravan socket) Braai facilities: Yes, bring your own grid Shade: Plenty of tree cover Ground cover: Grass Pets: No Nearby activities: Shore fishing, swimming and canoeing in the estuary, stunning walkings along the surrounding cliffs and beach Important info: Six people per site Cost: R225 per site off peak, R300 in peak season Contact: Tel 0437054400 or 0434920881 28. Yellowwood Forest Campsite, Morgan Bay Location: -32.696946, 28.333667 Yellowwood Forest Campsite, Morgan Bay. Image credit: yellowwoodforest.co.za On the banks of the Inchara River, this peacefully shaded campsite is only 1.5km from the beach at Morgan Bay, known to many as the gateway to the beautiful Wild Coast. A bird watcher’s paradise, Yellowwood Forest Campsite offers a quiet, intimate place for nature lovers. If you’re not relaxing beside the river, swimming in it or identifying the many birds that grace the area, you can make your way down to the beach or relax in the tea garden, letting the children play in the play area while you enjoy wood-fired pizzas, light meals and refreshments. Number of stands: 30 Electricity: Yes, at 12 stands Braai facilities: Yes, at the stands and communal. Bring own grids Shade: Plenty of tree cover Ground cover: Grass Pets: By prior arrangement only Nearby activities: Hiking, beaching and volunteering opportunities Important info: Restaurant and bar on site. Laundry and wifi available. Wood for sale. No music allowed Cost: From R115 per stand, plus R15 per person (max 6 per stand). Electricity from R65 per day (low season) Contact: Tel 0848522601, yellowwoodforest.co.za 29. Rendezvous Caravan Park, East London Location: -32.840959, 28.114426 Not as well known as the other Sunshine Coast campsites, the lush Rendezvous Caravan Park offers secluded camping on a spectacular beach. Each campsite has a private bathroom, portable braai (with grid), electricity, running water and scullery. Laundry is communal. There’s also a playground and trampoline, and a fenced kids’ pool. Number of stands: 29 secluded stands for tents and caravans Electricity: Yes Braai facilities: Yes Shade: Plenty of tree cover Ground cover: Grass Pets: By prior arrangement, low season only Nearby activities: Beautiful beach on the doorstep and plenty of activities in the area – fishing, hiking, horse riding Important info: Laundry facilities available Cost: R100 per stand, plus R50 per adult and R40 per child/pensioner (low season, max 7 per stand). High season is R600 per stand for 4 people (max 6 per stand) Contact: Tel 0437343072 / 0731443005, rendezvouscaravanpark.co.za 30. Dwesa Campsite, Dwesa-Cwebe Nature Reserve Location: -32.303896, 28.830280 View of Dwesa-Cwebe Nature Reserve. The Wild Coast doesn’t get wilder than Dwesa-Cwebe Nature Reserve and Dwesa Campsite, on its southwestern edge (in the Dwesa section of the reserve), is a beautiful, befittingly wild and rustic spot to soak it all in. The reserve was created to preserve some of the last indigenous coastal forest in the region and there’s not much more to do here than appreciate it, and the many species of bird who call it home. There are numerous footpaths along the surrounding cliffs where you’re sure to spot whales (during the winter months) and dolphins as they cruise along the protected coastline. Number of stands: 40, plus 2- and 4-sleeper wooden chalets Electricity: No (gas showers) Braai facilities: Yes, bring your own wood and grid Shade: Plenty of trees Ground cover: Grass Pets: No Nearby activities: Spectacular beach and cliff-top hiking, excellent birding (290 species, including Narina trogon and mangrove kingfisher) Important info: Access to the reserve is along 2 hours of bumpy dirt roads from the N2, high clearance vehicle recommended Cost: From R212 per stand (sleeps 6) Contact: Tel 0437054400, visiteasterncape.co.za Campsites in KwaZulu-Natal 31. Ilanga Resort and Caravan Park, Banana Beach Location: -30.663469, 30.514817 Ilanga Resort and Caravan Park, Banana Beach. Image credit: ilangaresort.com This beautifully green and shaded campsite is directly adjacent to Banana Beach where the Indian Ocean’s waters are warm and inviting. This section of the coast is protected by shark nets and life guards are on duty during the holidays – so don’t worry about the children enjoying a splash in the ocean. When you’re not relaxing in the shade or on the beach, you can enjoy a good surf next to Banana Beach or go scuba diving in the area. Ilanga Resort also has a tidal pool and an entertainment area with pool, darts, swimming pool and table tennis for the younger children, and a some excellent golf courses only a short drive away. Number of stands: 100 Electricity: Yes Braai facilities: Yes, bring your own grid Shade: Plenty of tree cover Ground cover: Mostly grass, with some dirt and sand Pets: No Nearby activities: Fishing, scuba diving, golf, plenty of beach time and a swimming pool, pool table, table tennis at the resort Important info: Laundry facilities available Cost: From R150 per person, kids under 5 R50 (low season). Minimum R700 in high season (3 people). Max 6 per stand Contact: Tel 0396813280, ilangaresort.com 32. Scottburgh Caravan Park, Umdoni Coast Location: -30.283429, 30.759432 Scottburgh Caravan Park, Umdoni Coast. Image credit: scottburghcaravanpark.co.za Just 30 minutes south of Durban, Scottburgh Caravan Park is nicknamed ‘The one on the beach’ for good reason. This large camping and caravan site walks down onto the beach and is ideal for large family getaways. Apart from the beach, there are also water slides, mini-golf, restaurants and shops all within walking distance of your camp spot. Number of stands: 265, plus self-catering cottages Electricity: Yes Braai facilities: Yes, bring your own grid Shade: Partial tree cover Ground cover: Mostly grass, with some sand Pets: Yes, by prior arrangement (R25) Nearby activities: Entertainment and kids’ play area in the resort, plus horse riding, fishing, scuba diving, and Durban is a 30-minute drive north Important info: Laundry facilities available. The resort shop sells basic supplies and there is a shopping centre nearby Cost: From R175 per person, R85 for kids (low season). Minimum R840 per stand in high season (4 people) Contact: Tel 0399760291, scottburghcaravanpark.co.za Also read: Affordable weekend getaways near Durban 33. Zinkwazi Lagoon Lodge, Zinkwazi Location: -29.277755, 31.439972 Zinkwazi Lagoon Lodge, Zinkwazi. A thick canopy of subtropical trees screens Zinkwazi Lagoon Lodge’s forest campsite from the bright North Coast sunshine, and the ample greenery between the stands also helps provide privacy. The trees are home to a huge variety of birds and their calls and songs echo through the campsite. This is a great family destination, with plenty for the kids to explore around camp, a beautiful, sandy beach and a safe lagoon to canoe and swim in. Number of stands: 89, including 6 extra large ‘super sites’, plus various self-catering options Electricity: Yes, but single outlets serve multiple stands so bring a 25m extension cord Braai facilities: At some stands. Bring your own portable to be safe Shade: Full tree cover Ground cover: Mostly dirt, some with grass Pets: Small dogs by prior arrangement Nearby activities: Fishing, golf, canoes for hire, swimming (pool, sea and lagoon) and surfing. Bar and restaurant on site Important info: No jetskis allowed, R100 deposit for gate access key, laundry facilities available Cost: From R160 per person, R80 for kids. Max 4 adults, or 2 adults and 4 kids per stand Contact: Tel 0324853344, zinkwazilagoonlodge.co.za 34. Richards Bay Caravan Park, Richards Bay Location: -28.790092, 32.101609 Richards Bay Caravan Park, Richards Bay. Image credit: richardsbaycaravanpark.co.za As you enter, Richards Bay may seem like just another industrial port town with nothing but cargo ships, tugboats, cranes and warehouses, but push past the outskirts towards the coast and you’ll find a small, pleasant town and a peaceful campsite beside the Indian Ocean. The campsite is just a few minutes walk from the beautiful beach and there’s lots to do in the area, from day trips to iSimangaliso Wetland Park and Hluhluwe Umfolozi Game Reserve , to local attractions like deep-sea fishing, scuba diving, golf and lots more. Number of stands: 261, of varying sizes, privacy, shade and ground cover Electricity: Yes Braai facilities: Yes, bring your own grid Shade: From full tree cover, to no shade, depending on the stand Ground cover: Grass and dirt Pets: Small dogs, by prior arrangement, out of season Nearby activities: Nearby game parks, golf, paintball, fishing, swimming and access to a beautiful private beach Important info: Boat parking on stands at additional cost, wheelchair friendly, laundry facilities available Cost: From R130 per adult and R80 for kids in low season. R250 per adult in high season Contact: Tel 0357531971, richardsbaycaravanpark.co.za 35. Scotia Camp, Somkhanda Game Reserve Location: -27.592964, 31.844946 View of Somkhanda Game Reserve. Image credit: Teagan Cunniffe . Scotia Camp is a single, private campsite in a secluded section of Somkhanda Game Reserve. There are two options: either bring your own equipment and set up on your own or, for an extra fee, Somkhanda will provide a fully equipped mobile safari camp for you and your group, including a kitchen tent, gas fridge and a two-plate cooker. There is space for about 10 tents and all guests have access to flushing toilets and gas hot showers. Full board is also available. Number of stands: 1 large stand for up to 10 tents Electricity: No Braai facilities: Yes Shade: Plenty of tree cover Ground cover: Grass and dirt Pets: No Nearby activities: Game drives and guides walks available Important info: 4×4 access only Cost: From R120 per person (own equipment and self-catering), to R575 per person (full safari tent accommodation and full board) Contact: Tel 0333302269 / 0741297185, africaninsight.co.za 36. Cape Vidal Campsite, iSimangaliso Wetland Park Location: -28.132018, 32.552347 Cape Vidal Campsite, iSimangaliso Wetland Park. Tucked into the dune forest behind a seemingly endless golden beach, Cape Vidal Campsite is a wonderful place to experience the best of the sea and bush. Buffalo and large plains antelope graze the lush coastal vegetation while just over the long line of dunes, the warm Indian Ocean is alive with fish and a top destination for shore and ski-boat anglers. The campsite can get busy in high season, but in quieter months it can feel like you have the whole place to yourself and there are a number of stands tucked away into nooks and corners for added privacy. Number of stands: 50 stands, plus various self-catering cabins Electricity: Yes Braai facilities: Yes. Fixed at some stands, otherwise portable braais are available Shade: Plenty of tree cover Ground cover: Sand and dirt Pets: No Nearby activities: The beautiful, wide beach makes for great walking and safe swimming. Shore and ski-boat fishing available. Game drives and picnic sites in the area Important info: The small camp shop has basic supplies. Pack your foodstuffs securely at night or they might be dinner for the hungry camp honey badger Cost: R540 per stand (4 people), plus R135 per additional adult (max 6 per stand) Contact: Tel 0338451000, kznwildlife.com 37. Cobham Campsite, Southern Drakensberg Location: -29.702225, 29.414355 Get back to basics at Cobham , an open-plan campsite where you choose where you want to camp. Pick a spot in the shade and enjoy the peaceful atmosphere and beautiful views of the Southern Drakensberg. There are plenty of hikes in the area, some to caves where you can spend the night, as well as streams to swim in and loads fresh mountain air to breath. Number of stands: Large, open-plan camping area Electricity: No, but hot gas showers Braai facilities: No, bring your own free-standing braai and grid Shade: Partial tree cover Ground cover: Grass Pets: No Nearby activities: Numerous hiking trails, swimming and fly fishing in the Pholela River Important info: The area can get very cold in winter and even on some summer evenings, so pack accordingly Cost: R80 per adult. First 2 kids under 12 stay free Contact: Tel 0337020831 / 0839623934, kznwildlife.com Also read: Scott Ramsay’s take on the uKhahlamba Drakensberg Mountains Reinheim River Information Reinheim River Chalets and Caravan Park is a nature hideaway situated 20km from Bloemfontein, next to the Renosterspruit. We offer 20 camping stands in a family friendly environment, with neat ablution facilities and a steady supply of hot water. Located close to the N1 next to the Renosterspruit, the 6 Chalets situated along the rivers edge, offers you with a nature hideaway, 20km from Bloemfontein. All units are fully self-catering, equipped with a kitchenette, DSTV, bathroom with shower, aircon and an outdoor patio with a braai area. The units are decorated in earthy tones and with, an Outdoor Pool, Trampoline, Kids Play Area and Fishing available, there sure to be something for everyone. Campsite Type Country CampsiteRiverside Campsite Campsite Accommodation Caravan siteSelf cateringTent site Campsite Facilities Ablutions with hot and coldwaterBraai facilitiesChildren play areaNo pets allowedNo quad bikes allowedStands with 220v MainsSwimming poolWater points close to sites Loskopdam, A Forever Resort Information Visit the Forever Loskopdam between Waterberg Mountain Range and the Loskop Dam Nature Reserve, on the banks of the Loskop Dam as the name suggests and you can expect a much-needed break away from the city. The Resort offers three-star accommodation options such as its famous Log Cabins, self-catering Chalets, Guest House, Family Houses, Camping and Caravan sites (including some newly paved sites). Forever Loskopdam also has a variety of activities available on the Resort which will keep the entire family entertained, from fishing adventures to a spa, swimming pools, and so much more! Campsite Type Lake, Dam or Lagoon CampsiteMountain CampsiteNature Reserve Campsite Campsite Accommodation Caravan siteMotorhome siteSelf cateringTent site Campsite Facilities Ablutions with hot and coldwaterBraai facilitiesChildren play areaConference facilitiesCredit cards welcomeFamily bathroomsL.P. Gas fillingLaundryNo pets allowedNo quad bikes allowedPensioner discountsRestaurant and/or take-away in resortScullerySecurity fenced and/or patrolledShop in ResortStands with 220v MainsSwimming poolWater points close to sitesWheelchair friendly with assistance Rendezvous Caravan Park Information Set on the edge of beautiful Cintsa Bay it is just a stones throw from the beach; with each site being positioned amongst beautiful trees to offer privacy, whilst the 29 caravan stands also offer individual & private braai, electricity, bathroom & outside scullery facilities. Guests and friends at Rendezvous Caravan Park can take in all it has to offer, including: # Use the resort facilities such as shared laundry facilities, pool, recreation room, trampoline, playground. # An expansive beach offering kids sea-swimming baths, pristine beach, rock-pools and fantastic fishing. # Frequent Cintsa Bay Restaurant/Convenience Store which is a short walk from the Camp or drive a short distance to many other restaurants and general facilities such as doctor, pharmacy, SPAR, bottle store, butcher etc # Visit one of the many nearby attractions, such as game parks, golf clubs, paintball & quad bike, horse riding facilities and much much more Cintsa West is a small and thriving community, is incredibly friendly and numbering just hundreds not thousands of people during holiday season, offering an intimate welcoming and safe environment for everyone. Campsite Type Coastal Campsite Campsite Accommodation Caravan siteMotorhome siteTent site Campsite Facilities Ablutions with hot and coldwaterBraai facilitiesChildren play areaLaundryPensioner discountsPet Friendly by prior arrangementPrivate ablutionsRecreation roomSculleryStands with 220v MainsSwimming poolTent erection assistanceWater points close to sitesWheelchair friendly with assistance George Country Resort Information George and the Garden Route have a lovely climate, moderately hot summers and mild winters enjoy a peaceful retreat during winter or a fun-filled summer holiday. Small town and country atmosphere, peace and tranquillity, nestled in a rich valley surrounded by the Outeniqua Mountains, forests, rivers and the sea ideally situated in the Garden Route to explore diverse scenic wonders. All the destinations that George and the Garden Route have to offer can be found just a day trip away from our self-catering accommodation. We have 20 comfortably appointed newly built two bedroom self-catering accommodation chalets which can sleep up to 6. The self-catering accommodation features include a large living area, dining nook, comfortable furnishings, private deck with braai, and OpenView decoders. We also have 6 spacious open plan self-catering accommodation chalets which sleep up to 3/4, also with dining nook, Open View and deck with private braai facilities. All chalets have their own bathrooms and fully equipped kitchens. Our 126 campsites are shaded and grassed with 220V power points. Scullery and laundry facilities available. The ablution facilities provide clean showers and baths. The park provides 16 private ablution blocks all with own kitchenette and bathroom. Campsite Type Coastal CampsiteCountry Campsite Campsite Accommodation BackpackersCaravan siteMotorhome siteSelf cateringTent site Campsite Facilities Ablutions with hot and coldwaterBraai facilitiesChildren play areaCredit cards welcomeFamily bathroomsL.P. Gas fillingLaundryNo pets allowedPensioner discountsPrivate ablutionsScullerySecurity fenced and/or patrolledStands with 220v MainsSwimming poolTelevision roomWater points close to sitesWiFi available Xaxaza Caravan Park Information Situated in the gently rolling hills and only 4 km from the white sandy beaches of Mtunzini and the beautiful Mtunzini river mouth. We invite you to come and enjoy your holiday at our very popular coastal resort where the climate is sub-tropical and very special attractions are offered as an added bonus. Sun tan on our golden beaches, laze around our sparkling swimming pool, relax with your feet up whilst the kids have a ball, or enjoy a round of golf at our beautiful golf club only minutes away. For the non-golfers and the more energetic, tennis, squash or bowls are also within easy reach at the country club. Horse riding at the Pony club in Mtunzini can be arranged. Other recreational activities include deep sea fishing, walks through various eco systems, namely estuarine, dune scrub, dune forest, coastal ravine and coastal forest. Because of this diversity of trails, a tremendous variety of bird species will more than satisfy the keen birder. Xaxaza is an ideal base from which to arrange visits to game parks such as Hluhluwe, Umfolozi and Mkuzi. Here you will be able to see the Big Five from the comfort of open Guide Tour vehicles. Campsite Type Coastal CampsiteGame Park CampsiteNature Reserve Campsite Campsite Accommodation Caravan siteMotorhome siteSelf cateringTent site Campsite Facilities Ablutions with hot and coldwaterBraai facilitiesNo pets allowedStands with 220v MainsSwimming poolWater points close to sites Palm Tree Lodge Information The Palm Tree Lodge is set in the Northern most part of the St Lucia Wetlands and bordering on the Green belt of the Maputuland Coast line. Although there are no private resorts permitted with in the National Parks this quaint holiday destination is neatly tucked up close to the main gate of the regional Parks Board offices making the acquisition of all the necessary permits as easy as possible and also lends its self as a base camp for launching craft onto the lakes as well as the Sea Launches which take place in Ponto Du Oure more commonly known as Ponta. The main aim of the resort is to offer its guests a true feeling of the African bushveld with a little bit of the tropics as it is inundated with fruit baring Coconut Palms during the summer months. There are also Campsites available with electricity. It is the natural surroundings that make this resort a destination for the true lover of the out doors. Back at the Lodge itself it is however all hospitality. The Boma is situated in the middle of the lodge so that interaction is promoted and creating a cosy atmosphere in which the guests can relax. Stripped from all the noise from your Television, Computer games, Kids PlayStation and Booming Radio, beeping cars and annoying alarms, The Palm Tree Lodge takes you away from the everyday stress and noise and brings you back to Nature! You will be brought back to the earth, feel the sand between your toes, fall asleep to the sound of the abundance of palm trees rustling in the wind and marvel at the beauty of the plants and shrubs throughout the premises. The perfect place to rest, relax and recharge. Campsite Type Coastal CampsiteLake, Dam or Lagoon Campsite Campsite Accommodation Caravan siteMotorhome siteSelf cateringTent site Campsite Facilities Ablutions with hot and coldwaterBraai facilitiesChildren play areaCredit cards welcomeNo pets allowedNo quad bikes allowedPensioner discountsPrivate ablutionsRecreation roomRestaurant and/or take-away in resortSecurity fenced and/or patrolledSwimming poolTelevision roomWater points close to sitesWheelchair friendly with assistance Marakele National Park Information The Marakele National Park in the heart of the Waterberg Mountains. The park is characterised by contrasting majestic mountain landscapes, grass-clad hills and deep valleys. All the large game species from elephant and rhino to the big cats as well as an amazing variety of birds, including the largest colony of endangered Cape Vultures (more than 800 breeding pairs) in the world, have settled here. Activities include bird watching, game viewing and guid trails. Accommodation Available: # Campsites # Safari Tents Campsite Type 4x4 CampsiteGame Park CampsiteMountain Campsite Campsite Accommodation Caravan siteMotorhome siteSelf cateringTent site Campsite Facilities 100% Wheelchair friendlyAblutions with hot and coldwaterBraai facilitiesConference facilitiesCredit cards welcomeNo pets allowedNo quad bikes allowedScullerySecurity fenced and/or patrolledStands with 220v MainsWater points close to sites Dwarswegstrandoord Information Dwarswegstrandoord is situated close to Great Brak River, in the Garden Route, between George and Mossel Bay. Relax in the tranquil atmosphere with direct access to the beach. Access to the resort is controlled to ensure the safety of our visitors. The caravan park at Dwarswegstrandoord has 11 paved sea view campsites, 12 paved non-seafront campsites and 11 grass non-seafront campsites. Each of the 34 campsites at this 4-star caravan park is equipped with water, electricity, and braai facilities. Campers receive an access code to use the spotless ablution facilities. Dwarswegstrandoord has seafront houses, flats, and non-seafront chalets available as well. Campsite Type Coastal CampsiteNature Reserve Campsite Campsite Accommodation Caravan siteMotorhome siteSelf cateringTent site Campsite Facilities Ablutions with cold water onlyAblutions with hot and coldwaterBraai facilitiesChildren play areaCredit cards welcomeLaundryNo pets allowedNo quad bikes allowedPensioner discountsScullerySecurity fenced and/or patrolledShop in ResortStands with 220v MainsTelevision roomWater points close to sitesWheelchair friendly with assistance Kruger National Park Information Maroela is a small camp situated on the banks of the Timbavati River, on the western boundary of the Kruger National Park, approximately 2 km east of Orpen Rest Camp. This camp is one of only two camps in the Park that exclusively caters for guests with caravans and for campers. Close to the fence, visitors can indulge in watching a variety of animals that visit a small watering hole. There is also a rustic viewing platform overlooking the Timbavati River. Accommodation Available: # Campsites Campsite Type 4x4 CampsiteGame Park Campsite Campsite Accommodation Caravan siteMotorhome siteTent site Campsite Facilities Ablutions with hot and coldwaterBraai facilitiesCredit cards welcomeNo pets allowedScullerySecurity fenced and/or patrolledStands with 220v MainsWater points close to sitesWheelchair friendly with assistance Best trails in South Africa Ready to check out the best trails in South Africa for hiking, mountain biking, climbing or other outdoor activities? AllTrails has 3,642 hiking trails, mountain biking routes, backpacking trips and more. Discover hand-curated trail maps, along with reviews and photos from nature lovers like you. No matter what you're looking for, you can find a diverse range of the best hiking trails in South Africa to suit your needs. Explore one of 625 family-friendly hikes for a sunny weekend. Check out 7 wheelchair-friendly trails with helpful accessibility guidance. Plan your next outdoor adventure to one of 1,732 routes with waterfalls or scenic views. Lion's Head Summit · Table Mountain National Park A great hike in the city. It is a bucket list must-do for Cape Town. Well marked and amazing 360 degree views. Some sections are quite exposed and there are ladders and staples to assist. There is one climbing section with staples and chains, this can be bypassed to the left if too difficult. This hike is popular on nights with a full moon (with headlamps) as well as at sunrise. The Cape Floral Kingdom of Table Mountain National Park is one of the richest floral regions in the world. Over 70% of the flowers are endemic to Table Mountain. For this reason United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (Unesco) awarded Table Mountain Heritage Status for being a natural site that is part of the Cape Floral Kingdom. The mountain was also chosen as one of the new seven world wonders. Table Mountain is thought to be one of the oldest mountains in the world. The rocks of the mountain are approximately 600-million years old. It is the only natural site on the planet to have a constellation of stars named after it. The constellation is called “Mensa”, which means ‘table’ in Latin. I know, I know. You’ve seen a list like this before. We all have. But this one is slightly different in that I’ve canvassed hiking professionals and aficionados from across the country to ensure this list is as close as it can be to the definitive list. If you were looking for a list of incredible must-do multi-day hikes to tick off over the next five, ten, twenty years then this is it. There are some notable absentees from the list. For example, the Fish River was left because it’s in Namibia. The glorious and incomparable Rim of Africa is a once-a-year, guided nine-week trail that we highly recommend but wasn’t included as it’s not a typical trail. Now, have a look at this list, pick your next trail and get out there! 1. Amatola Trail Cape Parrots and Knysna turacos can often be heard, and seen, in the mornings. Credit: Matthew Sterne Often referred to as the toughest trail in South Africa, the Amatola Trail is worthy of other superlatives too. It’s the forest paths – full of tiny luminescent ferns, moss-covered trees and a canopy of leaves that form a ceiling above the verdant cavern – that I remember most. Each day promises 10 hours of descending and ascending ahead, through lush valleys and up to the flower-strewn grasslands and peaks of the Amatola Range. This is a gruelling, self-guided trail and you have to take everything with you. Should something go wrong in this remote mountain wilderness, it’s a long way back to civilisation. Type: Backpacking with huts Duration: 6 days Distance: 100 km 2. Pondo Trail Each dinner is a fully catered feast with the likes of fillet with mushroom sauce, chicken curry and a seafood platter. Credit: Matthew Sterne I believe that if the world knew about this trail , it would be on every hiker’s wishlist. It’s the wildest part of the Wild Coast, from Mtentu down to Manteku, with rivers meeting the shore every two-and-a-half kilometres, on average. Every day is different, a mixture of beautiful grasslands, ravines, a shelf section, a cliff section and a string of lovely beaches. Waterfall bluff, a rare phenomenon of waterfalls tumbling into the ocean, is the most picturesque section but it’s all breathtakingly beautiful. And to make it even better, this hike with Wild Child Africa is fully catered, featuring local seafood, cold G&Ts waiting for you at the end of the day and local, knowledgeable guides. Type: Slackpacking with tented huts Duration: 5 days Distance: 100 km 3. Wild Coast Trail Coffee Bay is the final destination of the Wild Coast Trail. Credit: Getaway Another beautiful hike in the former Transkei, this area offers untouched beaches, rolling grassy hills dotted with colourful huts and the occasional beach-loitering cow. It generally starts in Port St. Johns and finishes in Coffee Bay, with overnight stops in rural villages. Wildside Hiking offers guided hiking tours, which are all led by guides born and raised in the surrounding villages. Each night, the homesteads provide a cooked Xhosa lunch and activities along the way include fishing, crayfishing, sangoma visit, traditional dance with locals and isiXhosa lessons. The best time to visit is between May and mid-August. Type: Backpacking with traditional huts Duration: 5 days Distance: 61 km 4. Otter Trail The first look at the dreaded (but beautiful) Bloukrans River crossing on day three of the Otter Trail. Credit: Melanie van Zyl Widely regarded as one of the best hiking trails in the world, they don’t call the Otter ‘The Prince of Trails’ for nothing. The 45 km coastal walk from Storms River to Nature’s Valley will leave even your chattiest aunt speechless with its rockpools, secluded huts and pristine coastline. She might struggle to make it to the end of the hike though. Steep climbs, secret waterfalls and midnight river crossings are all part of the fun. Permits sell out a year in advance for South Africa’s favourite trail, but it’s worth the wait. Style: Backpacking with huts Duration: 5 days Distance: 45 km 5. Whale Trail The Whale Trail in the Western Cape is a fan-favourite. Credit: Getaway It’s not just the vultures, coastal beauty and ocean splendour going on here, but the accommodation is in a league of its own. Calling these houses huts is like calling the Drakensberg a mountain. They’re a bit more than that. Expect lazy strolls on the beach, excess wine waiting for you in the huts (if you’re doing it right) and decent beds. Oh, and between June and November, the coastline is transformed as southern right whales migrate here to breed and look after their young. Type: Slackpacking Duration: 5 days Distance: 55 km 6. Central Cederberg Circuit Descending from Sneeuberg a little late in the day, but with golden views. Sneeuberg is the highest peak in the Cederberg. Credit: Matthew Sterne The Cederberg can be a tricky place to make sense of for the uninitiated. Where does it begin? Where does it end? And, most importantly, where should we hike? It’s a huge wilderness area that takes many visits to truly grasp, but this five-day route is probably the best way to get properly acquainted. According to our friends at Hiking South Africa , “This route explores some of the most iconic places in the Cederberg and is one of the best five-day hikes I have done anywhere. It takes you past Crystal Pools, Welbedacht Cave, the Wolfberg Arch and Wolfberg Cracks, the Maltese Cross and Sneeuberg.” Type: Wild camping Duration: 5 days Distance: 72 km 7. Mnweni Circuit The northern Drakensberg’s mighty Mnweni Pass is not in a formally protected area, but remains wild and rugged nonetheless. Credit: Melanie van Zyl Similarly to the Cederberg, the Drakensberg has so many trails and routes that it can be difficult to choose which one to take. In recent years, Mnweni has emerged as a favourite amongst those in the know and is regarded as one of the most beautiful parts of the high Berg. Sandwiched between the better-known Royal Natal National Park and Cathedral Peak, this hiking trail is managed by the amaNgwane Tribal Authority, traversing land occupied by traditional Zulu communities and small-scale farmers. Type: Wild camping Duration: 3 days Distance: 40 km 8. Giant’s Cup Trail The Giant’s Cup traverses the Lower Berg, granting epic views of the Drakensberg peaks. Credit: Arno van der Heever The only fully hutted trail in the Drakensberg, the Giant’s Cup Trail is a fantastic way of experiencing the lower Berg. It serves up glorious panoramic views, grassy plains, spectacular valleys with beautiful streams and pools, weathered rock formations, varied terrain and a well laid-out, well-marked trail. It’s considered an ideal trail for first-time visitors to the Drakensberg. Type: Backpacking with huts Duration: 5 days 9. Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Primitive Wilderness Trail Wilderness trails guide Nunu Jobe follows in the footsteps of legendary Zulu trackers and rangers. Credit: Scott Ramsay On foot in a Big 5 wilderness. Now this is living. The concept of wilderness trails was introduced over 60 years ago by Ian Player, the man behind Operation Rhino (and Gary Player’s brother), as a means of introducing people from all corners of the globe and from all walks of life to the life-changing process brought about by walking through the wilderness on foot and experiencing the wonder of nature firsthand. This is a raw bush experience, sleeping out at night and taking turns to keep watch over your mates while lions, hyenas and leopards prowl in the darkness. Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife offers a range of trails to choose from, all offering a chance to experience the bush at a very personal level. Type: Wild camping Duration: 4 days Distance: Varies 10. Outeniqua Trail The Outeniqua Trail has a better forest than the nearby Tsitsikamma Trail. Credit: Dania Petrik This spectacular trail can be conquered as a series of day walks or over a full seven-day period, between George and Knysna. Carrying food for a trip that long can get heavy but you’ll be rewarded with the unsurpassed scenery that the Outeniqua Mountains are famous for. There are numerous river crossings, some of which are impassable after heavy rains so it’s important to plan accordingly. The huts offer shelter, firewood, grids, water and rudimentary bedding. There’s electricity at the Millwood, Diepwalle and Harkerville huts. Hikers do not have to hike the full seven days; two or three days are allowed, connecting routes making this possible. Type: Backpacking with huts Duration: 7 days Distance: 108 km 11. Leopard Trail The Leopard Trail has numerous side trails that hikers can choose to take as they go. We recommend them all. Credit: Teagan Cunniffe Set in the magnificent Baviaanskloof World Heritage Site Wilderness Reserve, the Leopard Trail has quickly grown in popularity since opening in 2016. Baviaanskloof – the name is derived from the Dutch for “Valley of Baboons” – is a narrow valley blessed with pristine natural grandeur, and run with narrow gorges, streams, steep mountain passes and vast waving grassland plains. It’s just under 200 km in length and, due to lying at a lower altitude than the Karoo to the north, has a lush landscape supporting a wide variety of fauna and flora. It’s a circular route and a catered hike, ensuring it’s easier to handle those uphills and take in the views of the huge expanse of mountains, the beautiful flowers and enjoying the river along much of the route. Type: Slackpacking with tents Duration: 4 days Distance: 60 km 12. Timbavati Primitive Trail Nights have a very different feel to the day, on a hike with Lowveld Trails Co. Taking watch is one of the standout memories. Credit: Lowveld Trails Co. According to hiking expert, Hlengiwe Magagula , “The other rich zone for backpacking safaris is the Kruger region, with a multitude of options in both the national park and adjacent Greater Kruger reserves. The SANParks-operated backpacking trails always use a tent, so if you’d prefer the sleep-out experience, a good option is to book a trail with Lowveld Trails Company . This outfit is run by experienced trail-guiding instructors, and will bring you into either Timbavati Private Nature Reserve or Makuya Nature Reserve, which both share unfenced boundaries with the Kruger Park itself. The Lowveld Trails Company operates a three-night primitive trail for groups of up to eight.” Type: Wild camping Duration: 4 days Distance: Varies BACK TO THE TOP OF THE PAGE

Tribes of South Africa: A Journey Through Diverse Cultures and Traditions In the vibrant tapestry of South Africa’s heritage, the diverse tribes stand as vibrant threads, each contributing its unique hue to the nation’s rich cultural fabric. From the Nguni-speaking Zulu and Xhosa to the Sotho-Tswana, and the colorful tapestry of smaller ethnic groups , South Africa is a kaleidoscope of traditions, languages, and customs that blend harmoniously, painting a vivid picture of a nation united in diversity. The differentiation among these tribes often extends beyond linguistic variations, encompassing distinctive rituals, beliefs, and social structures. These unique traits, passed down through generations, serve as a testament to the resilience of South Africa’s cultural heritage, while also presenting opportunities for mutual understanding and appreciation. South Africa’s myriad tribes are a testament to the country’s rich history and cultural diversity. Each tribe brings its unique traditions, beliefs, and customs to the nation’s tapestry, creating a vibrant and dynamic society. The diverse tribes of South Africa exemplify the country’s resilience and adaptability, having survived centuries of change and adversity. They are a source of pride and identity for South Africans, and their stories continue to be told and celebrated. The Vibrant Tapestry of South Africa: Exploring the Diverse Tribes and Their Cultural Heritage South Africa, a nation brimming with natural beauty, captivates the world with its diverse cultural tapestry. In this rich landscape, the influence of various tribes and ethnic groups has profoundly shaped the country’s history, traditions, and vibrant cultural identity. This article takes you on a captivating journey to explore the different types of tribes in South Africa, uncovering their unique customs, languages, and practices. The Xhosa Tribe: Keepers of the Nguni Legacy With a rich history spanning centuries, the Xhosa tribe proudly ranks among South Africa’s most prominent ethnic groups. Their ancestral lands lie primarily in the Eastern Cape Province, where their resilient spirit and cultural heritage have flourished for generations. The Xhosa people, renowned for their intricate beadwork and expressive music, have significantly influenced South Africa’s political, social, and cultural landscapes. The Zulu Tribe: A Legacy of Strength and Unity In the southeastern region of South Africa, the Zulu tribe stands tall, a testament to resilience and unity. Their history is intertwined with that of iconic leaders like Shaka Zulu, whose leadership and military prowess shaped the Zulu nation into a formidable force. Known for their vibrant dance performances, stunning beadwork, and elaborate ceremonies, the Zulu people have indelibly imprinted their mark on South Africa’s cultural fabric. The Pedi Tribe: Guardians of the Northern Sotho Heritage From the Northern Sotho linguistic group emerges the Pedi tribe, a proud people with deep-rooted traditions. Their ancestral home lies in the Limpopo Province, where they preserve their cultural identity through captivating music, intricate pottery, and mesmerizing dance performances. The Pedi tribe’s history is replete with tales of bravery, resilience, and a steadfast commitment to their cultural legacy. The Tswana Tribe: A Legacy of Harmony and Adaptation In the vast and arid regions of South Africa, the Tswana tribe has thrived, showcasing remarkable adaptation and resilience. Their ancestral lands are primarily situated in the North West Province, where they have cultivated a rich heritage of music, dance, and storytelling. The Tswana people are renowned for their harmonious communal living and their ability to adapt to the challenging conditions of their environment. The Venda Tribe: Echoes of Ancestral Wisdom From the northeastern corner of South Africa, the Venda tribe emerges as a bastion of cultural preservation. Their traditional lands lie within the Limpopo Province, where they have nurtured a deep connection to their ancestral spirits and the natural world. The Venda tribe’s traditions, expressed through mesmerizing music, intricate beadwork, and captivating dance performances, reflect their profound reverence for their cultural roots. The Ndebele Tribe: A Symphony of Colors and Patterns In the heart of South Africa’s Mpumalanga Province, the Ndebele tribe paints a vibrant canvas of culture and artistry. Their traditional attire, adorned with intricate beadwork and bold geometric patterns, captivates the eye with its kaleidoscope of colors. The Ndebele people’s unique architectural style, characterized by brightly painted houses with intricate murals, further showcases their artistic flair and cultural pride. The Sotho Tribe: Embracing Unity and Tradition The Sotho tribe, a significant ethnic group in South Africa, predominantly occupies the central and eastern regions of the country. Their cultural heritage is deeply rooted in unity, community spirit, and respect for elders. The Sotho people have a strong oral tradition, passing down stories, legends, and historical accounts through generations. Their traditional music and dance performances showcase their vibrant cultural expressions. The Swazi Tribe: Upholding Royal Traditions Orientation Identification. The Swazi nation is named for Mswati II, who became king in 1839. The royal lineage can be traced to a chief named Dlamini; this is still the royal clan name. About three-quarters of the clan groups are Nguni; the remainder are Sotho and Tsonga. These groups have intermarried freely. There are slight differences among Swazi groups, but Swazi identity extends to all those with allegiance to the twin monarchs Ngwenyama "the Lion" (the king) and Ndlovukati "the She-Elephant" (the queen mother). Location and Geography. Swaziland, in southern Africa between Mozambique and South Africa, is a landlocked country of 6,074 square miles (17,360 square kilometers). The terrain is mostly mountainous with moderately sloping plains. The legislative capital is Lobamba, one of the traditional royal seats. The administrative capital is the nearby city of Mbabane. Manzini is the business hub. Demography. The population in 2000 is about 980,000. A small European population (about 3 percent) sometimes is called "White Swazi." Linguistic Affiliation. The official languages are siSwati and English. SiSwati, a Southern Bantu language, is a member of the Nguni subgroup. Symbolism. The primary national symbol is the monarchy. King Sobhuza II (died 1982) oversaw the transition from colony to protectorate to independent country. The symbolic relationship between the king and his people is evident at the incwala , the most sacred ceremony, which may not be held when there is no king. The full ritual, which takes several weeks, symbolizes the acceptance of traditional rulers, the unity of the state, the agricultural cycle, fertility, and potency. History and Ethnic Relations Emergence of the Nation. The Nguni clans, which originated in East Africa in the fifteenth century, moved into southern Mozambique and then into present-day Swaziland; the term abakwaNgwane ("Ngwane's people") is still used as an alternative to emaSwati . Sobhuza I ruled during a period of chaos, resulting from the expansion of the Zulu state under Shaka. Under Sobhuza's leadership, the Nguni and Sotho peoples as well as remnant San groups were integrated into the Swazi nation. "Swazi" eventually was applied to all the peoples who gave allegiance to the Ngwenyama. National Identity. In the late 1830s, initial contact occurred among the Swazi, the Boers, and the British. A substantial portion of Swazi territory was ceded to the Transvaal Boers, the first of many concessions to European interests. The Pretoria Convention for the Settlement of the Transvaal in 1881 recognized the independence of Swaziland and defined its boundaries. The Ngwenyama was not a signatory, and the Swazi claim that their territory extends in all directions from the present state. More than a million ethnic Swazi reside in South Africa. Britain claimed authority over Swaziland in 1903, and independence was achieved in 1968. Ethnic Relations. Relations among the Swazi peoples have generally been peaceful. Relations with Europeans historically were strained as a result of land concessions and tension caused by the administrative domination of Great Britain. Swaziland Urbanism, Architecture, and the Use of Space The predominant home style is the Nguni "bee-hive" hut, in which a rounded frame made of poles is covered with thatch bound with plaited ropes. Sotho huts, which have pointed, detachable roofs on walls of mud and wattle, are found throughout the country; these huts have window frames and full doorways. Both types can be found within a single homestead, which may also include European architectural styles. Traditional homestead organization follows the "central cattle pattern." In the center of the homestead is an unroofed, fenced cattle pen, the sibaya , from which women are barred. Residential huts are grouped around the western side. The "great hut," indlunkulu is used as the family shrine, dedicated to the senior patrilineal ancestors. Other huts are occupied by individual wives. Food and Economy Food in Daily Life. The traditional food supply fluctuated seasonally. Between winter and the new crops of summer, shortages were common. Maize and millet were the main staples. Dairy products, especially soured milk, were reserved for children. Cattle were slaughtered mainly for ritual purposes, and meat was in short supply. Leafy vegetables, roots, and fruits completed the traditional diet. The introduction of supermarkets means that meat and other products are available throughout the year. The Swazi typically observed a fish taboo, along with a taboo on egg consumption for females and a dairy taboo for wives. There were also clan-specific food taboos on particular birds and wild animals. Indigenous Tribes of South Africa: Traditions, Customs, And Heritage The Indigenous tribes of South Africa have rich traditions, customs, and heritage, reflecting their diverse cultural practices and beliefs. South Africa is home to various indigenous tribes including the Zulu, Xhosa, Sotho, and San people, each with unique customs, traditions, and heritage that are deeply rooted in their history and way of life. These tribes have preserved their cultural practices through storytelling, dance, music, art, and spiritual rituals, contributing to the rich tapestry of South Africa’s cultural heritage. Understanding and respecting these traditions is essential for preserving the cultural diversity and identity of South Africa’s indigenous tribes. Everywhere you go in South Africa, you will find the incredible influence of these indigenous tribes, shaping the country’s cultural landscape and reinforcing the significance of their traditions and customs. The Rich Diversity Of Indigenous Tribes Experience the rich tapestry of South Africa’s indigenous tribes, each steeped in vibrant traditions, customs, and a unique cultural heritage that has been preserved for generations. Journey through the diverse landscapes of the region to uncover the fascinating stories and practices of these ancient communities. The indigenous tribes of South Africa have a rich history and diverse cultural heritage. The country is home to various tribes, each with distinctive customs and traditions. These tribes are spread across different regions of South Africa. They vary in both population size and linguistic diversity. Some tribes have large populations while others are smaller in number. Each tribe also has its unique language and dialect, adding to the country’s cultural tapestry. Traditional Beliefs And Spiritual Practices The indigenous tribes of South Africa uphold traditional beliefs and spiritual practices, deeply rooted in their customs and heritage. These traditions are passed down through generations, shaping their cultural identity and connection to the land. Their spiritual rituals and ceremonies are integral to their way of life, reflecting a profound respect for nature and ancestral wisdom. Indigenous Tribes of South Africa: Traditional Beliefs and Spiritual Practices Ancestral worship includes honoring ancestors for guidance and protection. Connection to nature is central, viewing it as a living entity. Rituals and ceremonies mark important life events and seasons. Traditional healers play key roles in spiritual and physical well-being. Traditional Art And Crafts Traditional art and crafts play a significant role in showcasing the unique artistic expressions of indigenous tribes in South Africa. These tribes meticulously create stunning artwork using natural materials, which not only reflects their deep connection with nature but also has symbolic meanings. The use of natural materials such as wood, clay, beads, and feathers not only adds authenticity to their creations but also signifies their respect and reverence towards the environment. Indigenous tribes in South Africa often incorporate symbolism in their artwork to communicate powerful messages and preserve their cultural heritage. Each piece of art holds a deeper meaning, narrating stories of ancestors, spirituality, and traditional beliefs. These symbolic representations provide a glimpse into their rich history, customs, and traditions. From intricate wood carvings and beautifully beaded jewelry to vibrant paintings and pottery, the traditional art and crafts of indigenous tribes in South Africa captivate and mesmerize onlookers, showcasing their creativity, talent, and deep-rooted cultural values. Oral Tradition And Storytelling Oral tradition and storytelling are integral to the indigenous tribes of South Africa. The importance of oral history lies in preserving cultural heritage and passing down knowledge through generations. Myths, legends, and folktales are woven into the fabric of their storytelling, conveying morals and values. Additionally, rituals play a crucial role in ensuring the continuation of these traditions, creating a sense of communal identity and pride. Land And Natural Resources Indigenous tribes of South Africa have a deep connection to the land, which is integral to their traditions, customs, and heritage. They have a profound respect for their traditional land rights and prioritize conservation efforts to protect their natural resources. However, they face numerous challenges and threats to their territories, including land encroachment and unsustainable resource exploitation. Despite these obstacles, indigenous communities are steadfast in their commitment to safeguarding their land and natural resources for future generations. Cultural Tourism And Preservation Cultural tourism is crucial in promoting sustainable tourism, preserving the rich traditions, customs, and heritage of indigenous tribes in South Africa. By embracing cultural tourism, indigenous communities can preserve their unique way of life, ensuring that their traditions are not lost to modernization. Cultural exchange and understanding are integral in fostering mutual respect and appreciation. Through cultural tourism, visitors can engage with indigenous tribes, promoting a deeper understanding of their customs and heritage. By participating in activities such as traditional dances, storytelling, and handicrafts, tourists can immerse themselves in the authentic experiences offered by indigenous tribes. This exchange of knowledge and appreciation can help break stereotypes and misconceptions, fostering greater cultural tolerance and respect. The Importance Of Indigenous Rights Indigenous rights play a crucial role in preserving the rich traditions, customs, and heritage of South Africa’s Indigenous tribes. By protecting their rights, we ensure the continuity and appreciation of their valuable cultural heritage. The Importance of Indigenous Rights Recognition and protection of indigenous rights is crucial for their well-being. Addressing historical injustices ensures a fair treatment for indigenous communities. Advocacy and empowerment are vital for indigenous tribes to thrive and preserve their culture. Frequently Asked Questions For Indigenous Tribes Of South Africa: Traditions, Customs, And Heritage What Are The Indigenous Tribes Of South Africa? The indigenous tribes of South Africa include the Zulu, Xhosa, Basotho, and many others. Each tribe has its own unique customs, traditions, and languages, contributing to the rich cultural heritage of the country. What Are The Traditional Customs Of South African Tribes? Traditional customs of South African tribes often include rites of passage, ceremonies, and practices that are passed down through generations. These customs play a significant role in preserving the cultural identity and heritage of the indigenous tribes. How Do South African Tribes Preserve Their Heritage? South African tribes preserve their heritage through oral storytelling, traditional music and dance, and the passing down of cultural practices from one generation to the next. These methods help to ensure that their rich traditions and customs endure over time. Conclusion The Indigenous tribes of South Africa embody a rich tapestry of traditions, customs, and heritage that have been passed down through generations. Through their vibrant rituals, art forms, and oral storytelling, these tribes have managed to preserve their unique identity and ancestral knowledge. Exploring their ways of life and appreciation for nature is not only culturally enlightening but also allows a deeper understanding of our shared humanity. yourself in the wonders of South Africa’s indigenous tribes and embrace the beauty of their diverse heritage. The 11 languages of South Africa The 11 languages of South Africa South Africa has 11 official languages and a multilingual population fluent in at least two. IsiZulu and isiXhosa are the largest languages, while English is spoken at home by only one in 10 people – most of them not white. South Africa’s constitution recognises 11 official languages: Sepedi (also known as Sesotho sa Leboa ), Sesotho, Setswana, siSwati, Tshivenda, Xitsonga, Afrikaans, English, isiNdebele, isiXhosa and isiZulu. For centuries South Africa’s official languages were European – Dutch, English, Afrikaans. African languages, spoken by at least 80% of the people, were ignored. In 1996 South Africa’s new constitution gave official protection to all of the country’s major languages. South Africa has about 34 historically established languages. Thirty are living languages, and four extinct Khoesan languages. Overview of South Africa’s languages IsiZulu is South Africa’s biggest language, spoken by almost a quarter (23%) of the population. Our other official languages are isiXhosa (spoken by 16%), Afrikaans (13.5%), English (10%), Sesotho sa Leboa (9%), Setswana and Sesotho (both 8%), Xitsonga (4.5%), siSwati and Tshivenda (both 2.5%), and isiNdebele (2%). English is an urban language of public life, widely used in the media, business and government. Out of the 4.9-million South Africans who speak English as a first language, a third (33%) are white, a quarter (24%) are black, 22% are Indian and 19% are coloured South Africans. English is widely used as a second language and common language of communication, mainly in the cities. Afrikaans is a version of Dutch that evolved out of a South Holland dialect brought here in the 1600s. Over the centuries it has picked up many influences from African languages, as well as from European colonial languages such as English, French and German. More than half (50.2%) of Afrikaans speakers are coloured, 40% are white, 9% black and just 1% Indian. Click to enlarge South Africa’s nine African official languages all fall into the Southern Bantu-Makua subfamily, part of the broad and branching Niger-Congo family of languages. The languages arrived here during the great expansion of Bantu-speaking people from West Africa eastwards and southwards into the rest of the continent. The expansion began in around 3000 BCE and was largely complete by 1000 CE. Like all languages in the Niger-Congo family they are tonal languages, in which either a high or low tone gives a word a different meaning. The nine African languages can be broadly divided in two: Nguni-Tsonga languages: isiNdebele, isiXhosa, isiZulu, siSwati, Xitsonga Sotho-Makua-Venda languages: Sesotho, Sesotho sa Leboa, Setswana, Tshivenda Within the first group Xitsonga alone falls into the Tswa-Ronga subfamily, while isiZulu, isiXhosa, isNdebele and siSwati are Nguni languages. Similarly, Sesotho, Sesotho sa Leboa and Setswana are closely related Sotho languages, and Tshivenda something of a standalone in the Sotho-Makua-Venda subfamily. Multilingual South Africa South Africans are more than bilingual. A rough estimate based on Census 2001 first-language data and a 2002 study of second-languages speakers is that the average South African – man, woman and child – uses 2.84 languages. Obviously, many people are limited to one, and many others able to speak three, four or more languages. Click to enlarge English- and Afrikaans-speaking people (mostly coloured, Indian and white South Africans) tend not to have much ability in African languages, but are fairly fluent in each other’s language. Multilingualism is common among black South Africans. For this reason, South African censuses ask people which two languages they speak. The question in the 2011 Census was: Which two languages does (member of household) speak most often in this household? Thirteen options were given: South Africa’s 11 official languages, plus Sign Language, and “Other”. If a person did not speak a second language, that too was recorded. The contrast between first language and second language is shown in the maps at right. While the geographical pattern of dominant first languages neatly conforms to the facts of history and urbanisation, the picture of second languages is more complicated, more of a mess. The second map reveals a couple of things. The first is how few South Africans speak just one language. The second is that while English is the dominant first language only in the cities – Johannesburg, Cape Town, Durban – it is widely used as a second language across the country. English is spread by the media and used as a common language of communication. But many South Africans are compelled to learn English, and often Afrikaans as well, simply to get a job and to work. These are often poorer people denied an adequate education. Elsewhere in the world the ability to speak many languages is a sign of sophistication. In South Africa, multilingualism – a complex undertaking, especially in languages from very different families – is a common achievement of the poor. Code-switching South Africa Language is fluid, especially in South Africa. Our languages are and have been for centuries in a constant swirl , mixed by work, migration, education, urbanisation, the places we live, friendship and marriage. Because of this, South Africans are a code-switching people. “Code switching” simply means using more than one language in a single conversation. Every adult South African does this at some time, even if they aren’t aware of it. Here’s an example overheard at a football match. IsiZulu is in regular type, Afrikaans in bold and English in italics: “I-Chiefs isidle nge-referee’s ngabe ihambe sleg. Maar why benga stopi this system ye-injury time?” A rough translation: “Chiefs [the football club] have won because the referee favoured them. Otherwise, they would have lost. But why is this system of injury time not stopped?” Influenced by the other languages spoken around them, all of South Africa’s languages change and grow all the time. Who speaks what? South Africa’s most recent census was in 2011. The following table gives a breakdown of first-language speakers, as recorded by the census. South Africa’s 11 official languages LanguageSubfamily1st language share1st language users2nd language usersAll users AfrikaansLow Franconian13.5%6.9 million10.3 million17.2 million EnglishWest Germanic9.6%4.9 million11.0 million15.9 million isiNdebeleNguni2.1%1.1 million1.4 million2.5 million isiXhosaNguni16%8.1 million11.0 million19.1 million isiZuluNguni22.7%11.6 million15.7 million27.3 million SesothoSotho-Tswana7.6%3.8 million7.9 million11.8 million Sesotho sa Leboa (Sepedi)Sotho-Tswana9.1%4.6 million9.1 million13.8 million SetswanaSotho-Tswana8%4.1 million7.7 million11.8 million siSwatiNguni2.5%1.3 million2.4 million3.7 million TshivendaSotho-Makua-Venda2.4%1.2 million1.7 million2.9 million XitsongaTswa-Ronga4.5%2.3 million3.4-million5.7 million Source: Constitution Source: Glottolog Source: Census 2011 Source: Census 2011 Source: Webb 2002Estimate The languages of the provinces The languages you hear in South Africa depend on where you are in the country. In the Eastern Cape isiXhosa is spoken by 80% of the population. IsiZulu is the largest language in both KwaZulu-Natal, where 78% speak it, and Gauteng, where it makes up 20% of languages. Sesotho is the language of the Free State, spoken by 64% people there. And so on … Watch: The main languages of each province are: Eastern Cape – isiXhosa (78.8%), Afrikaans (10.6%) Free State – Sesotho (64.2%), Afrikaans (12.7%) Gauteng – isiZulu (19.8%), English (13.3%), Afrikaans (12.4%), Sesotho (11.6%) KwaZulu-Natal – isiZulu (77.8%), English (13.2%) Limpopo – Sesotho sa Leboa (52.9%), Xitsonga (17%), Tshivenda (16.7%) Mpumalanga – siSwati (27.7%), isiZulu (24.1%), Xitsonga (10.4%), isiNdebele (10.1%) Northern Cape – Afrikaans (53.8%), Setswana (33.1%) North West – Setswana (63.4%), Afrikaans (9%) Western Cape – Afrikaans (49.7%), isiXhosa (24.7%), English (20.3%) The languages Unless otherwise indicated, all figures below are from Census 2011 and refer only to first language – the language spoken at home. Afrikaans Also known as: isiBhuru (isiNdebele), isiBhulu (isiXhosa), isiBhunu (isiZulu), siBhunu (siSwati), Seburu (Sesotho sa Leboa), Xibunu (Xitsonga) First-language users: 6,855,082 (13.5% of South Africans) Second-language users: 10,300,000 (2002 estimate) All users: 17,155,082 (estimate) Afrikaans evolved out of a 17th-century Dutch dialect introduced to South Africa in 1652 when the Dutch first colonised the Cape of Good Hope. Today it is the majority language of the Northern Cape. Afrikaans became an official language in South Africa with the Official Languages of the Union Act of 1925, which retroactively dated the language’s official status to 1910. The 6,855,082 South Africans who speak Afrikaans as a first language make up 13.5% of the country’s total population. More than half (50.2%) of these Afrikaans speakers are coloured, 39.5% white, 8.8% black, 0.9% Indian or Asian, and 0.6% other. More than three-quarters (75.8%) of coloured South Africans speak Afrikaans, as do almost two-thirds (60.8%) of whites. It is the home language of 4.6% of Indian or Asian people, and of 1.5% of black South Africans. Afrikaans and South Africa’s population groups BlackColouredIndian or AsianWhiteOtherAll Total population41,000,9384,615,4011,286,9304,586,838280,45451,770,560 Afrikaans speakers602,1663,442,16458,7002,710,46141,5916,855,082 Share of population1.5%75.8%4.6%60.8%15.2%13.5% Most Afrikaans speakers (41%) live in the Western Cape, and 21% in Gauteng. Ten percent of all Afrikaans speakers live in the Eastern Cape, 8.8% in the Northern Cape, and 5% in the Free State. Within the provinces, Afrikaans is the majority language in the Northern Cape (53.8%) and the Western Cape (49.7%). It makes up 12.7% of languages spoken in the Free State, 12.4% of Gauteng’s languages, 10.6% of languages in the Eastern Cape, 9% in North West, 7.2% in Mpumalanga, 2.6% in Limpopo and 1.6% in KwaZulu-Natal. Overview of South Africa’s languages IsiZulu is South Africa’s biggest language, spoken by almost a quarter (23%) of the population. Our other official languages are isiXhosa (spoken by 16%), Afrikaans (13.5%), English (10%), Sesotho sa Leboa (9%), Setswana and Sesotho (both 8%), Xitsonga (4.5%), siSwati and Tshivenda (both 2.5%), and isiNdebele (2%). English is an urban language of public life, widely used in the media, business and government. Out of the 4.9-million South Africans who speak English as a first language, a third (33%) are white, a quarter (24%) are black, 22% are Indian and 19% are coloured South Africans. English is widely used as a second language and common language of communication, mainly in the cities. Afrikaans is a version of Dutch that evolved out of a South Holland dialect brought here in the 1600s. Over the centuries it has picked up many influences from African languages, as well as from European colonial languages such as English, French and German. More than half (50.2%) of Afrikaans speakers are coloured, 40% are white, 9% black and just 1% Indian. Click to enlarge South Africa’s nine African official languages all fall into the Southern Bantu-Makua subfamily, part of the broad and branching Niger-Congo family of languages. The languages arrived here during the great expansion of Bantu-speaking people from West Africa eastwards and southwards into the rest of the continent. The expansion began in around 3000 BCE and was largely complete by 1000 CE. Like all languages in the Niger-Congo family they are tonal languages, in which either a high or low tone gives a word a different meaning. The nine African languages can be broadly divided in two: Nguni-Tsonga languages: isiNdebele, isiXhosa, isiZulu, siSwati, Xitsonga Sotho-Makua-Venda languages: Sesotho, Sesotho sa Leboa, Setswana, Tshivenda Within the first group Xitsonga alone falls into the Tswa-Ronga subfamily, while isiZulu, isiXhosa, isNdebele and siSwati are Nguni languages. Similarly, Sesotho, Sesotho sa Leboa and Setswana are closely related Sotho languages, and Tshivenda something of a standalone in the Sotho-Makua-Venda subfamily. Multilingual South Africa South Africans are more than bilingual. A rough estimate based on Census 2001 first-language data and a 2002 study of second-languages speakers is that the average South African – man, woman and child – uses 2.84 languages. Obviously, many people are limited to one, and many others able to speak three, four or more languages. Click to enlarge English- and Afrikaans-speaking people (mostly coloured, Indian and white South Africans) tend not to have much ability in African languages, but are fairly fluent in each other’s language. Multilingualism is common among black South Africans. For this reason, South African censuses ask people which two languages they speak. The question in the 2011 Census was: Which two languages does (member of household) speak most often in this household? Thirteen options were given: South Africa’s 11 official languages, plus Sign Language, and “Other”. If a person did not speak a second language, that too was recorded. The contrast between first language and second language is shown in the maps at right. While the geographical pattern of dominant first languages neatly conforms to the facts of history and urbanisation, the picture of second languages is more complicated, more of a mess. The second map reveals a couple of things. The first is how few South Africans speak just one language. The second is that while English is the dominant first language only in the cities – Johannesburg, Cape Town, Durban – it is widely used as a second language across the country. English is spread by the media and used as a common language of communication. But many South Africans are compelled to learn English, and often Afrikaans as well, simply to get a job and to work. These are often poorer people denied an adequate education. Elsewhere in the world the ability to speak many languages is a sign of sophistication. In South Africa, multilingualism – a complex undertaking, especially in languages from very different families – is a common achievement of the poor. Code-switching South Africa Language is fluid, especially in South Africa. Our languages are and have been for centuries in a constant swirl , mixed by work, migration, education, urbanisation, the places we live, friendship and marriage. Because of this, South Africans are a code-switching people. “Code switching” simply means using more than one language in a single conversation. Every adult South African does this at some time, even if they aren’t aware of it. Here’s an example overheard at a football match. IsiZulu is in regular type, Afrikaans in bold and English in italics: “I-Chiefs isidle nge-referee’s ngabe ihambe sleg. Maar why benga stopi this system ye-injury time?” A rough translation: “Chiefs [the football club] have won because the referee favoured them. Otherwise, they would have lost. But why is this system of injury time not stopped?” Influenced by the other languages spoken around them, all of South Africa’s languages change and grow all the time. Who speaks what? Watch: South Africa’s most recent census was in 2011. The following table gives a breakdown of first-language speakers, as recorded by the census. South Africa’s 11 official languages LanguageSubfamily1st language share1st language users2nd language usersAll users AfrikaansLow Franconian13.5%6.9 million10.3 million17.2 million EnglishWest Germanic9.6%4.9 million11.0 million15.9 million isiNdebeleNguni2.1%1.1 million1.4 million2.5 million isiXhosaNguni16%8.1 million11.0 million19.1 million isiZuluNguni22.7%11.6 million15.7 million27.3 million SesothoSotho-Tswana7.6%3.8 million7.9 million11.8 million Sesotho sa Leboa (Sepedi)Sotho-Tswana9.1%4.6 million9.1 million13.8 million SetswanaSotho-Tswana8%4.1 million7.7 million11.8 million siSwatiNguni2.5%1.3 million2.4 million3.7 million TshivendaSotho-Makua-Venda2.4%1.2 million1.7 million2.9 million XitsongaTswa-Ronga4.5%2.3 million3.4-million5.7 million Source: Constitution Source: Glottolog Source: Census 2011 Source: Census 2011 Source: Webb 2002Estimate The languages of the provinces The languages you hear in South Africa depend on where you are in the country. In the Eastern Cape isiXhosa is spoken by 80% of the population. IsiZulu is the largest language in both KwaZulu-Natal, where 78% speak it, and Gauteng, where it makes up 20% of languages. Sesotho is the language of the Free State, spoken by 64% people there. And so on … Watch: The main languages of each province are: Eastern Cape – isiXhosa (78.8%), Afrikaans (10.6%) Free State – Sesotho (64.2%), Afrikaans (12.7%) Gauteng – isiZulu (19.8%), English (13.3%), Afrikaans (12.4%), Sesotho (11.6%) KwaZulu-Natal – isiZulu (77.8%), English (13.2%) Limpopo – Sesotho sa Leboa (52.9%), Xitsonga (17%), Tshivenda (16.7%) Mpumalanga – siSwati (27.7%), isiZulu (24.1%), Xitsonga (10.4%), isiNdebele (10.1%) Northern Cape – Afrikaans (53.8%), Setswana (33.1%) North West – Setswana (63.4%), Afrikaans (9%) Western Cape – Afrikaans (49.7%), isiXhosa (24.7%), English (20.3%) The languages Unless otherwise indicated, all figures below are from Census 2011 and refer only to first language – the language spoken at home. Afrikaans Also known as: isiBhuru (isiNdebele), isiBhulu (isiXhosa), isiBhunu (isiZulu), siBhunu (siSwati), Seburu (Sesotho sa Leboa), Xibunu (Xitsonga) First-language users: 6,855,082 (13.5% of South Africans) Second-language users: 10,300,000 (2002 estimate) All users: 17,155,082 (estimate) Afrikaans evolved out of a 17th-century Dutch dialect introduced to South Africa in 1652 when the Dutch first colonised the Cape of Good Hope. Today it is the majority language of the Northern Cape. Afrikaans became an official language in South Africa with the Official Languages of the Union Act of 1925, which retroactively dated the language’s official status to 1910. The 6,855,082 South Africans who speak Afrikaans as a first language make up 13.5% of the country’s total population. More than half (50.2%) of these Afrikaans speakers are coloured, 39.5% white, 8.8% black, 0.9% Indian or Asian, and 0.6% other. More than three-quarters (75.8%) of coloured South Africans speak Afrikaans, as do almost two-thirds (60.8%) of whites. It is the home language of 4.6% of Indian or Asian people, and of 1.5% of black South Africans. Afrikaans and South Africa’s population groups BlackColouredIndian or AsianWhiteOtherAll Total population41,000,9384,615,4011,286,9304,586,838280,45451,770,560 Afrikaans speakers602,1663,442,16458,7002,710,46141,5916,855,082 Share of population1.5%75.8%4.6%60.8%15.2%13.5% Most Afrikaans speakers (41%) live in the Western Cape, and 21% in Gauteng. Ten percent of all Afrikaans speakers live in the Eastern Cape, 8.8% in the Northern Cape, and 5% in the Free State. Within the provinces, Afrikaans is the majority language in the Northern Cape (53.8%) and the Western Cape (49.7%). It makes up 12.7% of languages spoken in the Free State, 12.4% of Gauteng’s languages, 10.6% of languages in the Eastern Cape, 9% in North West, 7.2% in Mpumalanga, 2.6% in Limpopo and 1.6% in KwaZulu-Natal. English Also known as: Engels (Afrikaans), isiNgisi (isiNdebele and isiZulu), isiNgesi (isiXhosa), Senyesemane (Sesotho), Seisemane (Sesotho sa Leboa), siNgisi (siSwati), Xinghezi (Xitsonga) First-language users: 4,892,623 (9.6% of South Africans) Second-language users: 11,000,000 (2002 estimate) All users: 15,892,623 (estimate) English is a prominent language in South African public life, widely used in government, business and the media. As a first language it is mainly confined to the cities. In 1910 English and Dutch were declared the official languages of the new Union of South Africa. English has retained this official status ever since. The 4,892,623 South Africans who speak English as a first language make up 9.6% of the country’s total population. Among first-language English speakers, 32.8% are white, 23.9% black, 22.4% Indian and 19.3% coloured. The majority (86.1%) of Indian South Africans speak English as their home language, as do over a third (35.9%) of whites. It is the first language of 20.8% of coloured people, and of 2.9% of black South Africans. English and South Africa’s population groups BlackColouredIndian or AsianWhiteOtherAll Total population40,413,4084,541,3581,271,1584,461,409274,11150,961,443 English speakers1,167,913945,8471,094,3171,603,57580,9714,892,623 Share of population2.9%20.8%86.1%35.9%29.5%9.6% The largest number of English speakers are in Gauteng – 1.6-million people, or a third (32.8%) of all English-speaking South Africans. Over a quarter (27.3%) live in KwaZulu-Natal, 23.5% in the Western Cape, and 7.4% in the Eastern Cape. English is a minority language within all nine provinces. It is the second-largest language in both the Western Cape (after Afrikaans) and Gauteng (after isiZulu). In the Western Cape it is spoken by 20.2% of the population, and in Gauteng by 13.3%. English is minimally spoken in the other provinces. Read more: The online dictionary of South African English isiNdebele Also known as: Ndebele, Southern Ndebele, Ndzundza, isiKhethu First-language users: 1,090,233 (2.1% of South Africans) Second-language users: 1,400,000 (2002 estimate) All users: 2,490,233 (estimate) IsiNdebele is the least spoken of South Africa’s 11 official languages, and confined mainly to Mpumalanga and Gauteng. It is an Nguni language, like isiZulu, isiXhosa and siSwati. Also called Southern Ndebele, it is not to be confused with Northern Ndebele, more commonly known as Matabele, which is closer to isiZulu and an official language of Zimbabwe. The 1,090,223 South Africans who speak isiNdebele as a first language make up just 2.1% of the country’s total population. Among first-language isiNdebele speakers, 97% are black, 0.9% Indian or Asian, 0.8% coloured, 0.8% white and 0.5% other. IsiNdebele is spoken by 2.6% of black South Africans – fewer than the 2.9% who speak English at home. It is barely spoken by other population groups, being the home language of 0.2% of both the coloured and white population, and 0.8% of Indian or Asian people. It is also spoken by 2.1% of people who describe themselves as “other”. IsiNdebele and South Africa’s population groups BlackColouredIndian or AsianWhiteOtherAll Total population40,413,4084,541,3581,271,1584,461,409274,11150,961,443 IsiNdebele speakers1,057,7818,2259,8158,6115,7911,090,223 Share of population2.6%0.2%0.8%0.2%2.1%2.1% Most isiNdebele speakers (37%) live in Mpumalanga, followed by Gauteng (34.9%), KwaZulu-Natal (10.2%), Limpopo (9.6%) and North West (4%). IsiNdebele is a minority language in all the provinces. It is spoken by 10.1% of the population of Mpumalanga and 3.2% of Gautengers. isiXhosa Also known as: Xhosa First-language users: 8,154,258 Second-language users: 11,000,000 (2002 estimate) All users: 19,154,258 (estimate) The dominant language of the Eastern Cape, isiXhosa is also the second-largest language in South Africa after isiZulu. It is an Nguni language, like isiNdebele, isiZulu and siSwati, but also shows some influence from the Khoekhoe languages. The 8,154,258 South Africans who speak isiXhosa as a first language make up 16% of the country’s total population. Among first-language isiXhosa speakers, 99.4% are black, 0.3% coloured, 0.2% white and 0.1% Indian or Asian. Among the population groups, isiXhosa is spoken by 20.1% of black South Africans, the second-largest share after isiZulu. It is the home language of 0.6% of coloured people, 0.4% of Indians, 0.3% of whites and 1.9% of people who describe themselves as “other”. IsiXhosa and South Africa’s population groups BlackColouredIndian or AsianWhiteOtherAll Total population40,413,4084,541,3581,271,1584,461,409274,11150,961,443 IsiXhosa speakers8,104,75225,3405,34213,6415,1828,154,258 Share of population20.1%0.6%0.4%0.3%1.9%16% Close to two-thirds (62.4%) of first-language isiXhosa speakers live in the Eastern Cape, and 17.2% in the Western Cape. About a tenth (9.8%) of all isiXhosa speakers live in Gauteng. Within the provinces, isiXhosa is the majority language in the Eastern Cape, where its 5,092,152 first-language users make up 78.8% of the population. In the Western Cape a quarter (24.7%) of the population speaks isiXhosa. IsiXhosa is spoken by 7.5% of people in the Free State, 6.6% in Gauteng, 5.5% in North West, and 5.3% in the Northern Cape. isiZulu Also known as: Zulu First-language users: 11,587,374 (22.7% of the population) Second-language users: 15,700,000 (2002 estimate) All users: 27,300,000 (estimate) IsiZulu is the most widely spoken language in South Africa, the first language of close to a quarter of the population. It is the dominant language of KwaZulu-Natal. Like isiNdebele, isiXhosa and siSwati, isiZulu is an Nguni language. The 11,587,374 South Africans who speak isiZulu as their home language make up 22.7% of the country’s total population. A full 99.4% of first-language isiZulu speakers are black, 0.2% coloured, 0.1% white and 0.1% Indian or Asian. IsiZulu is spoken by 28.5% of black South Africans, more than any other language. It is the home language of 1.3% of Indian or Asian people, 0.5% of coloureds, 0.4% of whites and 4.1% of people who describe themselves as “other”. IsiZulu and South Africa’s population groups BlackColouredIndian or AsianWhiteOtherAll Total population40,413,4084,541,3581,271,1584,461,409274,11150,961,443 IsiZulu speakers11,519,23423,79716,69916,45811,18611,587,374 Share of population28.5%0.5%1.3%0.4%4.1%22.7% Over two-thirds (68.2%) of isiZulu-speaking South Africans live in KwaZulu-Natal, and more than a fifth (20.6% in Gauteng). Some 8.3% of all isiZulu speakers live in Mpumalanga, which borders KwaZulu-Natal to the northwest. The rest are thinly spread across the other provinces. Within the provinces, isiZulu is spoken by over three-quarters (77.8%) of the population of KwaZulu-Natal, and nearly a quarter (24.1%) of the people of Mpumalanga. Almost a fifth (19.8%) of Gautengers speak isiZulu. It is a small minority language in the rest of the provinces. Sesotho Also known as: Southern Sotho First-language users: 3,798,915 (7.6% of the population) Second-language users: 7,900,000 (2002 estimate) All users: 11,698,915 (estimate) Sesotho is the language of the Free State, and the first language of 3,798,915 South Africans, or 7.6% of the total population. It is one of the three Sotho languages, with Sesotho sa Leboa and Setswana. A full 98.7% of first-language Sesotho speakers are black, 0.6% coloured, 0.5% white and 0.1% Indian or Asian. Sesotho is spoken by just under a tenth (9.4%) of black South Africans. It is the home language of 0.5% of coloured people, of 0.4% of both white and Indian/Asian people, and of 1.7% of the people who describe themselves as “other”. Sesotho and South Africa’s population groups BlackColouredIndian or AsianWhiteOtherAll South Africa’s population40,413,4084,541,3581,271,1584,461,409274,11150,961,443 Sesotho speakers3,798,91523,2305,26917,4914,6573,849,563 Share of population9.4%0.5%0.4%0.4%1.7%7.6% Most (44.6%) Sesotho speakers live in the Free State. The inner curve of this bean-shaped province fits around the northwest border of Lesotho, a country where Sesotho and English are the official languages. Over a third (36.2%) of all Sesotho-speaking South Africans live in Gauteng. Some 5.2% live in North West. Within the provinces, Sesotho is spoken by close to two-thirds (64.2%) of the population of the Free State, over a tenth (11.6%) of Gauteng, and by 5.8% of people living in North West. Sesotho sa Leboa (Sepedi) Also known as: Northern Sotho First-language users: 4,618,576 (9.1% of the population) Second-language users: 9,100,000 (2002 estimate) All users: 13,518,576 (estimate) Sesotho sa Leboa or Sepedi? The 1993 interim Constitution named the language Sesotho sa Leboa. It was then changed to Sepedi in the final Constitution of 1996 . Debate on the right name continues . Most language experts, as well as speakers of the language , consider Sesotho sa Leboa to be the correct name, and Sepedi to be a dialect. In a study of the language policy of six South African universities, five used Sesotho sa Leboa and one Sepedi. But both the Department of Basic Education and Statistics South Africa use Sepedi as the language’s name. Sesotho sa Leboa is South Africa’s third-largest African language (after isiZulu and isiXhosa), and mainly spoken in Limpopo. Like Sesotho and Setswana, it is a Sotho language. Sesotho sa Leboa is the first language of 4,618,576 people, or 9.1% of the total population. A full 99.7% of first-language Sesotho sa Leboa speakers are black, 0.1% coloured, 0.1% white and 0.1% Indian or Asian. Sesotho sa Leboa is spoken by 11.4% of black South Africans. It is the home language of just 0.2% of Indians, 0.1% of coloureds, 0.1% of whites and 0.6% of people who describe themselves as “other”. Sesotho sa Leboa and South Africa’s population groups BlackColouredIndian or AsianWhiteOtherAll Total population40,413,4084,541,3581,271,1584,461,409274,11150,961,443 Sesotho sa Leboa speakers4,602,4595,6422,9435,9171,6164,618,576 Share of population11.4%0.1%0.2%0.1%0.6%9.1% Nearly two-thirds of (61.2%) of all Sesotho sa Leboa speakers live in Limpopo, over a quarter (27.8%) in Gauteng and 8.1% in Mpumalanga. The rest of the language’s speakers are scattered around the country. Within the provinces, Sesotho sa Leboa is spoken by more than half (52.9%) the people of Limpopo, 10.6% of those in Gauteng, and 9.3% of Mpumalanga’s population. Setswana Also known as: Tswana, Sechuana, Chuana First-language users: 4,067,248 (8% of the population) Second-language users: 7,700,000 (2002 estimate) All users: 11,767,248 (estimate) The language of North West and its neighbouring country of Botswana, Setswana is the Tswanaic language in the Sotho-Tswana subfamily, which it shares with Sesotho and Sesotho sa Leboa. Its 3,996,951 speakers make up 8% of South Africa’s population. Some 98.3% of Setswana speakers are black, 1% coloured, 0.1% Indian or Asian and 0.1% white. Setswana is spoken by 9.9% of black South Africans, making it the third-largest language in the population group. It is the first language of 0.9% of coloured people, 0.4% of both Indians and whites, and 2.4% of people who describe themselves as “other”. Setswana and South Africa’s population groups BlackColouredIndian or AsianWhiteOtherAll Total population40,413,4084,541,3581,271,1584,461,409274,11150,961,443 Setswana speakers3,996,95140,3514,91718,3586,6714,067,248 Share of population9.9%0.9%0.4%0.4%2.4%8.0% Over a half (52.9%) of Setswana speakers live in North West, a quarter (26.9%) in Gauteng, and close on a tenth (9.2%) in the Northern Cape. Both North West and the Northern Cape lie on the border of Botswana, where 79% of the population speak Setswana. Within the provinces, Setswana is spoken by nearly two-thirds (63.4%) of the population of North West, a third (33.1%) of the Northern Cape’s people, by 9.1% of Gauteng’s population and 5.2% of the Free State’s. siSwati Also known as: Swati, Swazi First-language users: 1,297,046 (2.5% of the population) Second-language users: 2,400,000 (2002 estimate) All users: 3,697,046 (estimate) SiSwati is mostly spoken in Mpumalanga, which along its curved eastern border almost encircles the country of Swaziland. SiSwati is an Nguni language, like isiNdebele, isiXhosa and isiZulu. The 1,297,046 people who speak siSwati are just 2.5% of South Africa’s population, making it the country’s third-smallest language. Among first-language siSwati speakers, 99.3% are black, 0.3% coloured, 0.2% white and 0.1% Indian or Asian. In the population as a whole, siSwati is spoken by 3.2% of black South Africans, by around 0.1% of the other population groups, and by 0.5% of people who describe themselves as “other”. SiSwati and South Africa’s population groups BlackColouredIndian or AsianWhiteOtherAll Total population40,413,4084,541,3581,271,1584,461,409274,11150,961,443 SiSwati speakers1,288,1564,0561,2172,2991,320234,655 Share of population3.2%0.1%0.1%0.1%0.5%2.5% Most siSwati speakers live in Mpumalanga – 85.3% of its total users and the highest provincial concentration of any language. Another tenth (10.5%) live in Gauteng, and the rest are scattered mainly over the northern parts of the country. Within the provinces, sisSwati is spoken by 27.7% of the total population of Mpumalanga, and just 1.1% of Gautengers. Tshivenda Also known as: Venda, Chivenda First-language users: 1,209,388 (2.4% of the population) Second-language users: 1,700,000 (2002 estimate) All users: 2,909,388 (estimate) Tshivenda is something of a standalone among South Africa’s major African languages, falling into the broader Sotho-Makua-Venda subfamily but not part of the Sotho group. It is mostly spoken in the far northeast of Limpopo. The 1,209,388 South Africans who speak Tshivenda are just 2.4% of the country’s population, making it the second-smallest language after isiNdebele. A full 99.4% of first-language Tshivenda speakers are black, 0.2% coloured, 0.2% white and 0.1% Indian or Asian. Tshivenda is spoken by 3% of black South Africans, by just 0.1% of the other population groups, and by 0.5% of people who describe themselves as “other”. Tshivenda and South Africa’s population groups BlackColouredIndian or AsianWhiteOtherAll Total population40,413,4084,541,3581,271,1584,461,409274,11150,961,443 Tshivenda speakers1,201,5882,8478102,8891,2541,297,046 Share of population3.0%0.1%0.1%0.1%0.5%2.4 Three quarters (73.8%) of Tshivenda speakers live in Limpopo, giving the language the second-highest provincial concentration after siSwati. A further 22.5% of Tshivenda speakers live in Gauteng. Within the provinces, Tshivenda is spoken by 16.7% of the population of Limpopo, and 2.3% of the population of Gauteng. Xitsonga Also known as: Tsonga, Shangaan, Shangana, Vatsonga First-language users: 2,277,148 (4.5% of the population) Second-language users: 3,400,000 (2002 estimate) All users: 5,677,148 (estimate) Xitsonga is a minority language concentrated along South Africa’s northeast border with the country of Mozambique, where it is also spoken. Within the broader Nguni-Tsonga language subfamily which it shares with isiNdebele, isiXhosa, isiZulu and siSwati, it alone falls into the Tswa-Ronga group, while the other languages are Nguni. The 2,277,148 South Africans who speak Xitsonga as their home language make up 4.5% of the country’s total population. A full 99.1% of first-language Xitsonga speakers are black, 0.2% white, 0.1% coloured and 0.1% Indian or Asian. Xitsonga is spoken by 5.6% of black South Africans, 0.2% of Indians, 0.1% of whites, 0.05% of coloureds and 3.9% of people who describe themselves as “other”. Xitsonga and South Africa’s population groups BlackColouredIndian or AsianWhiteOtherAll Total population40,413,4084,541,3581,271,1584,461,409274,11150,961,443 Xitsonga speakers2,257,7712,2682,5063,98710,6161,209,388 Share of population5.6%0.05%0.2%0.09%3.9%4.5% Nearly two-fifths (39.8%) of Xitsonga-speaking South Africans live in Limpopo, over a third (35%) in Gauteng, 18.3% in Mpumalanga and 5.6% in North West. Within the provinces, Xitsonga is spoken by 17% of the population of Limpopo, 10.4% of Mpumalanga and 6.6% of the people in Gauteng. Sources and notes Glottolog – Comprehensive reference information for the world’s languages, especially the lesser known languages. Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 Statistics South Africa Census 2011 Adrian Frith: Census 2011 Ethnologue: Languages of South Africa , 20th edition data (2017) Pharos South African Multilingual Dictionary (2014) ISBN 9781868901975 Language in South Africa: The role of language in national transformation, reconstruction and development (2002)