Witches & Witch Craft

Types of Witches & What They Practice

Witches have been around for centuries, and over the years, their magical practices have adapted and evolved to match their interests and needs. Take a look at our alphabetized list below to learn all about the most common types of witches and their rituals. Whether you’re thinking of joining the Wiccan community or are simply interested in the world of witches, we bet you’ll discover something new!

witchcraft, term usually applied to harm brought upon others through the use of supernatural or occult powers. The person engaging in witchcraft is called a witch, while the act of causing harm may be termed cursing, hexing, bewitchment, or maleficium. A belief in malevolent witchcraft has been found across many societies throughout recorded history. Sometimes witches are believed to act alone and at other times to operate in tandem with other witches, often as part of a conspiracy opposed to the moral norms of their communities. While witches are often a product of imagination, folklore, and fiction rather than reality, in many cases there have been people who have tried to curse others and who in some instances might consider themselves to be witches.

Salem witch trialWitch trial in Salem, Massachusetts, hand-colored engraving.

In many places those accused of witchcraft have been ostracized, punished, and sometimes killed. A prominent example of anti-witch persecutions were the witch trials that took place in Europe and the American colonies during the early modern period (the 15th to 17th centuries), at which time Christian Europeans commonly regarded witches not only as individuals who cursed others, but also as Satanists who gathered at witches’ sabbaths to worship the Devil. In the 21st century the persecution of accused witches can be found in various parts of the world, including much of sub-Saharan Africa, Papua New Guinea, and central India. These persecutions, often called witch hunts, may be fueled by communal tensions and other social problems.

Over time, the terms witchcraft and witch have also gained alternative meanings among English language speakers. A second, far broader definition uses the term witchcraft to describe a varied range of ritual practices intended to manipulate occult, spiritual, or supernatural power regardless of intent. In this sense, witchcraft can be used to harm or to heal, allowing there to be both bad and good witches. A third use of the term witch describes a woman who is regarded as being antisocial, rebellious, or independent of male power, a usage that can be employed in either a misogynistic or a feminist manner.

The fourth definition characterizes several modern religious groups, largely of 20th and 21st-century origin, whose practitioners actively refer to their traditions as witchcraft and themselves as witches. Typically, these practitioners draw heavily on the imagery and terminology historically associated with witchcraft in European cultures but invest it with new meanings. The largest of these new religions is Wicca, although the identity of the witch is also adopted by some modern Satanists and other esotericists.

Witchcraft as harm

The term witchcraft originated in the Early Middle Ages as the Old English term wiccecraeft. Prior to the 19th century the common understanding of the terms witch and witchcraft among English speakers was a negative one. In this context a witch was someone who drew on supernatural or occult power to harm others, engaging in what was often referred to using the Latin term maleficium.

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Similar concepts were evident in many other parts of Europe, with terms roughly synonymous with the English word witchcraft including sorcellerie (French), Hexerei (German), stregoneria (Italian), and brujería (Spanish). As Europeans expanded across the globe from the 15th century onward, they encountered communities that also believed in individuals who harmed others through occult means. These communities often had their own names for this phenomenon, ranging from the Mapuche term kalkutun through to the Zande word mangu. In large part due to British colonialism and American cultural influence, at the start of the 21st century the English words witchcraft and witch are probably the best known terms for this phenomenon on an international level. However, given that these words carry considerable cultural baggage, it remains possible that future anthropologists might devise new terminologies for this cross-cultural belief in occult harming practices.

At its core, witchcraft is about harming others, although the nature of this harm varies, from making a person ill or even killing them to inducing crop failure, poor weather, infertility and impotence, or the death of livestock. Witches are thus malevolent figures. While it is important to acknowledge the significant cultural and historical variation in perceptions of harmful witchcraft, the recurring nature of these beliefs suggests an origin in human psychology, perhaps a shared desire to find a reason for misfortune.

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A common belief about witches is that they bring about their intended harm through the performance of ritual acts, in English typically termed spell-casting. Often this relies upon a belief in what the anthropologist James Frazer termed “sympathetic magic”—the notion that invisible connections exist between separate things sharing some particular commonality, and that performing an act with one of these objects will exert an impact on the other. A recurring idea throughout many parts of the world, including Polynesia, Melanesia, South Asia, Africa, and North America, is that witches can harm a person by gaining access to their nail clippings, hair, or bodily waste. Another idea, found in parts of Europe, is that a curse can be enacted by making a doll or effigy of a person, into which pins can then be inserted.

blue eyeBlue eye (nazar) amulets for sale as protection against the evil eye, Turkey.

Not all witches need to perform ritual acts in order to curse somebody, however. Especially common in West and Central Africa and Melanesia are various beliefs about witches who bring about harm simply through their thoughts or desires. A similar notion, particularly recurrent in North Africa and the Middle East, is that of the evil eye, the idea that an individual can curse another through the power of sight alone.

Some communities have believed that individuals make a conscious choice to practice witchcraft, but elsewhere can be found the belief that certain people are simply born witches and may have little control over their actions. A traditional belief among the Bangwa of Cameroon, for instance, is that witches are born with an extra organ that compels them to drain other people’s blood. Similarly, an idea recorded among the Nyakyusa of Tanzania is that each witch inherits a python living within their stomach, which drives them to consume human flesh. This association with particular animals can also be seen in other contexts. Among the Zulu of South Africa, a traditional belief maintains that certain types of witches ride naked upon baboons, while in early modern England, a common notion held that witches were assisted by familiars, demonic entities that took animal form.

The social identity of the stereotypical witch varies. In some areas, women are regarded as more likely to be witches; in others, that role goes to men, while elsewhere, neither sex is thought to be more prone to witchery than the other. Gender roles can also impact the way in which witchcraft is thought to be carried out. On Dobu, an island off the coast of New Guinea, 20th-century ethnographers recorded a belief that male witches performed their curses while awake, whereas their female counterparts ventured forth at night, in spirit form, to carry out their nefarious acts. There is also variation in the age of suspected witches. In some places, age does not appear to be a significant factor in the accusations, while there are many societies that have tended to believe that older people are more likely to be witches, as well as rarer examples where children are more typically suspected.

Francisco Goya: Linda maestra! Linda maestra! (“Pretty Teacher!”), an etching by Francisco Goya that depicts an experienced witch instructing a young witch; plate 68 from the series Los caprichos (“Caprices”), 1799.

Although witches are generally perceived as being human, in many societies they are credited with fantastic abilities not shared by most people. The idea that witches can fly was found not only in early modern Europe (a period covering the 15th to 17th centuries) but also in parts of North America, sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Melanesia. In some cases they allegedly do so upon steeds; the aforementioned Nyakyusa for instance held to a belief that witches flew upon their pythons, while from early modern Europe there are accounts of witches riding upon broomsticks. In many places there are also accounts of witches being capable of transforming their shape. Inhabitants of Dang in Gujarat, India, for instance held to a belief that witches could take the form of tigers, while a witch who appears in the Metamorphoses, a 2nd-century novel by the Roman author Apuleius, can turn herself into a bird.

Witches are sometimes believed to act alone, but in other cases they are instead thought to operate in tandem with others, often as part of a secret society. The Kongo people of Central Africa are among those who traditionally believe that witches meet together to perform their nefarious acts, while from the Hopi of the American Southwest has been recorded the notion that witches all over the world form an international network and share a common language. In many cases this society of witches is regarded as being fundamentally anti-social and opposed to the moral norms of their communities. For this reason, witches are often thought to gather at night, when most people are asleep, and to engage in acts generally regarded as being socially taboo, such as nudity, cannibalism, and incest.

While witches are often deemed to act against the good of the community, there are other instances where a person may engage in cursing for socially sanctioned reasons. This is for instance the case in the Trobriand Islands of Papua New Guinea, where there are accounts of chiefs ordering ritual specialists to curse individuals who have broken certain laws or customs. There are also many contexts around the world in which a ritual specialist may engage in cursing for a paying client, and these ritualists may simultaneously also offer services for healing, divination, or to counter the curses of others. The distinction between the malevolent witch and other types of ritual specialist is not always clear-cut.

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The Blair Witch ProjectHeather Donahue in The Blair Witch Project (1999).

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Watch the Weird Sisters conspire in the opening scene of William Shakespeare's tragedy MacbethThe Weird Sisters (Three Witches) conspire in Act I, scene 1, of Shakespeare's Macbeth.

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As part of the worldview of many different communities, witches have often been incorporated into folk tales and legends. Internationally the best-known of these are probably the witches that feature in German tales such as “Hansel and Gretel” that were recorded and published by the Brothers Grimm in the early 19th century. The notion of malevolent witchery has also entered popular culture, with witches of this kind appearing in various influential works of fiction, ranging from literature such as William Shakespeare’s Macbeth (c. 1606) and Roald Dahl’s The Witches (1983) through to films like Suspiria (1977) and The Blair Witch Project (1999).

Witch trials

WitchcraftWitches being burned at the stake, color drawing, 16th century.

The ways that communities counter witchcraft and deal with suspected witches can vary widely. Sometimes, witchcraft has been seen as a minor problem that can largely be deflected with the use of amulets or other simple apotropaic procedures. If a person believes they have been cursed, they might turn to a ritual specialist who offers procedures to reverse the bewitchment and sometimes to identify the witch responsible, often through divination. In some cases the accused witch might then be confronted and expected to either lift the curse or pay compensation. Such situations need not escalate into violence.

At other times witchcraft has been seen as a major threat that requires a severe response. In many places methods for ascertaining whether or not a person is a witch can be highly dangerous for the accused. In parts of early modern Europe, accused witches were submerged under water, in the belief that the innocent might sink but that the guilty would float. In 19th and early 20th-century Central Africa, a common method for determining if a person was a witch would be to feed them poison; if they lived, they were considered innocent, while their death would be taken as a sign of their guilt. There are many cases across the world where confessions have also been extracted through the use of torture. The 19th-century residents of Dang repeatedly sought to elicit confessions by suspending the accused witch upside down over a fire, a process that sometimes proved fatal. Prior to the early 20th century, meanwhile, the Navajo of the American Southwest tied accused witches up and left them to starve until they confessed.

Punishments for accused witches have also varied, from expulsion from the community through to execution. When the death penalty has been sought, often a particular method was favored; in the 19th and early 20th centuries, for instance, the Bakweri, or Kwe, people of Cameroon had particular trees from which they hanged their witches. Sometimes the accused witch’s body has had to be dealt with in a specific way. Early 20th-century records among the Indigenous communities of Greenland for instance describe an executed witch being cut into pieces to prevent them from haunting the living. In some places the number of accusations and executions has risen dramatically, often (although not always) amid periods of economic, political, or social stress. In the tumult of the Indian Rebellion of 1857, for instance, a steady rise in witch-hunting was reported among various communities of northern India. However, by far the best-known period of prolonged witch-hunting was that which occurred among European communities, both in Europe itself and in the Americas, during the 16th and 17th centuries.

Satanic witchcraft and the early modern witch trials

Compendium maleficarum: Devil and witches trampling a crossThe Devil and witches trampling a cross, from Compendium maleficarum, 1608.

A belief in malevolent witchery has long been found in Europe. In and around Rome during the 2nd century bce, for instance, magistrates oversaw a period of witch-hunting that claimed several thousand lives. Christianization did not eradicate these beliefs, for sporadic persecutions of individuals accused of cursing others can be found in various Christian communities throughout the Middle Ages. However, it was only in the subsequent early modern period that Europeans increasingly conflated witchcraft with Satanism, the worship of the Devil, and engaged in the extensive criminal prosecution for witchcraft, thus generating later references to a “great witch hunt” or “witch craze.”

The notion that witches were not merely practitioners of maleficium but were also Devil worshipers emerged during the early 15th century. It was first apparent in trials that took place in the western Alps during the 1420s and ’30s but owed much to the influence of older ideas popularized in the preceding late medieval period. One such influence was the Roman Catholic allegation that rival Christian groups like the Waldensians, whom the church deemed heretical, had actively worshiped the Devil. Church propaganda had furthermore claimed that these groups often engaged in secret rituals involving nudity, incest, and cannibalism—acts that in the early 15th century were transferred to the new stereotype of the Satanic witch.

Another late medieval influence on this novel idea was the negative perception of ceremonial magic. The growing popularity of grimoire-based rituals among literate elites had increasingly worrying clerical authorities from the 13th century, particularly as some of these rites—which clerics labeled necromancy—relied on conjuring demons. Late medieval clerics increasingly believed that ceremonial magic always required a demonic pact and further conflated these elite rituals with the spells and charms widely practiced across all sectors of society. In turn, this contributed to the clerical perception that even simple acts of cursing required a demonic pact. A third influence on the new notion of Satanic witchcraft came from folklore, namely the long-standing belief that certain women traveled at night to a nocturnal revel with supernatural beings. This idea fed into the developing stereotype of the witches’ sabbath, the nighttime assembly where witches met to worship the Devil and take part in diabolic rituals.

Malleus maleficarumTitle page from a 1669 edition of the Malleus maleficarum, a handbook on witchcraft originally published in 1487.

From their origins in the Alpine region, these new ideas about Satanic witchcraft were probably disseminated through the Council of Basel (1431–49) and further promoted through 15th-century publications like Johannes Nider’s Formicarius (“The Anthill,” 1457) and Heinrich Krämer’s Malleus maleficarum (“The Hammer of Witches,” 1486). Texts such as these helped to spread notions of witchcraft as a Satanic conspiracy across Europe’s literate classes, although not everyone was convinced, and from at least the mid-16th century these theories faced published critiques from the likes of Dutch physician Johann Weyer and English author Reginald Scot. Moreover, while these diabolist ideas became influential among elite classes, they were not always widely adopted among poorer sectors of society—and it was from the latter that the impetus for witch trials often arose. In various parts of Europe, such as England, Denmark, Norway, and Russia, the early modern trials reflected a continued emphasis on witches not as Devil worshipers but simply as malefactors who cursed others.

Another important contributing factor to the early modern witch trials were changes in European legal systems. In many countries there had been a shift from the accusatorial procedure, whereby a private person initiated a prosecution against someone they felt had wronged them, to the inquisitorial procedure, as part of which the officers of the court were tasked with investigating a purported crime themselves. As the inquisitorial procedure typically required either two witness statements or a confession to prove guilt in the case of serious crimes, it led to the introduction of torture as a means of extracting confessions. Torture meant that accused persons were liable to admit to things they had not done, including to fantastical events such as flying to the sabbath. It also meant that the accused were more likely to name others as accomplices, contributing to the spread of witch hunts.

The nature and number of trials varied widely across early modern Christendom, both chronologically and regionally. Most affected was an area of west-central Europe encompassing Switzerland, several French principalities, and German-speaking parts of the Holy Roman Empire, and it was here that the largest witch hunts took place. Overall, historians now believe that the number of people prosecuted for witchcraft in this period approached 100,000, of whom somewhere between 40,000 and 60,000 were executed; many of the others faced banishment, imprisonment, or corporal punishment. The actual method of execution varied. In much of continental Europe and in Scotland, the common practice was to burn accused witches at the stake, although they were often strangled or garroted first. Conversely, in England and in the English colonies in North America, the standard method of execution was hanging.

There was some regional variation in the sex of those typically accused and executed. In regions such as Iceland, Estonia, and Russia, most of those accused were men, while in Finland the numbers of men and women accused were roughly even. However, across Christendom as a whole, the clear majority of accused witches were female, with women representing more than 75 percent of the accused in most regions of early modern Europe. Of these, a particularly high proportion were older people. Various factors likely contributed to the disproportionate targeting of women, including ingrained cultural stereotypes going back to classical sources, the misogynistic content of texts like the Malleus maleficarum, and the fact that female social roles, like those of the cook, healer, and midwife, placed them at greater risk of being accused of maleficium.

Modern historians are unanimous in the view that there was no organized religion of Satanic witchcraft active among early modern Europeans. It is thus generally assumed that the majority of those accused of being witches were innocent. At the same time, some individuals living in early modern communities probably did engage in cursing, and given the pervasive belief in the reality of Satan it is possible that some of them regarded themselves as being in league with the Devil. Moreover, it is apparent that some of those accused were involved in ritual, religious, or folk traditions that their accusers misinterpreted as Satanic witchery, as was the case with the benandanti, practitioners of a visionary tradition active in Friuli, Italy.

Witch trials declined in the late 17th and 18th centuries. New rules for judicial procedure had gradually insisted on more demanding standards of evidence and displayed a growing concern at the widespread use of torture. The number of acquittals for witchcraft grew, and courts became increasingly reluctant to initiate prosecutions. Higher judicial authorities repeatedly stepped in to stop regional witch hunts that they felt had gotten out of control. Growing elite skepticism of the trials would eventually be joined by growing skepticism regarding the very existence of witchcraft itself. Over the course of the 18th and 19th centuries, various European states modified or repealed laws that criminalized witchcraft, largely ending the period of legal prosecutions. Although the witch trials were over, a fear of malevolent witchery persevered in many communities. In various places accusations and rare attacks on accused witches continued into the 20th century.

In the 19th and early 20th centuries, learned speculation about the early modern witch trials produced a range of interpretations. While the dominant view was that the trials had arisen from social delusions exploited by clerical elites to cement their power, other writers argued that there had been a real conspiracy of Satanic witches or that the trials had been an attempt to extinguish a surviving pre-Christian religion devoted to a horned god. These views would largely be dismissed amid the intensification of academic research on the topic from the 1960s onward.

The early modern trials have inspired a substantial body of literature, theater, television, and film. This material has spanned various genres, from horror (e.g. Witchfinder General [1968], The Witch [2015]) through to comedy (e.g. I Married a Witch [1942], Hocus Pocus [1993]). Most of this material is American, resulting in a disproportionate focus on the trials that took place in Salem, Massachusetts, in 1692–93, which were otherwise a comparatively small and late manifestation of the early modern witch hunts. Probably the best-known portrayal of the Salem trials is Arthur Miller’s 1953 play The Crucible, since adapted twice for the cinema. The Crucible was an allegorical critique of U.S. Sen. Joseph McCarthy’s attempts to identify alleged communists throughout American society, and the play has thus contributed to the popularization of the term witch hunt to describe the persecution of people not for crimes they have committed but rather for their beliefs or for things that they are wrongly accused of having done.

Contemporary witch-hunting

Although the persecution of accused witches has largely subsided in much of the world, there are several regions where anti-witch violence remains widespread. The largest of these is sub-Saharan Africa, where witchcraft has long formed part of many traditional worldviews. Although European colonial authorities largely tried to suppress witch-hunting during the 19th and early 20th centuries, various African anti-colonial groups responded by incorporated witch-hunting into their repertoires, and since the end of colonial rule witch-hunting has experienced a resurgence in many African societies.

Sometimes, as in the cases of Malawi and Cameroon, laws have been passed relegalizing the trial of accused witches. Elsewhere, anti-witch persecutions and sometimes killings have occurred outside legal frameworks. Despite its background in traditional ideas, modern African witch-hunting has also been influenced by new developments and social problems, among them urbanization, poverty, and the HIV/AIDS epidemic. Another contributing factor has been the rapid spread of Pentecostalism, a form of Protestant Christianity that typically emphasizes the Devil’s presence on Earth. In many parts of Africa Pentecostal preachers have played a prominent role in seeking out and combating witches, an activity that can be motivated not just by genuine belief but also by the financial and reputational rewards it can bring.

Among these new developments, especially in Central and West Africa, has been the spreading notion that children can be witches, something rarely seen on the continent in earlier periods. Although some African governments, such as that of Nigeria’s Akwa Ibom state, have passed laws banning the accusation of children, the situation persists and has contributed to widespread child abandonment and homelessness—by the early decades of the 21st century, several thousand accused child witches were living on the streets of Kinshasa in the Democratic Republic of Congo, for instance.

Witch-hunting also remains widespread among Adivasi, or Indigenous, communities in central India, with the issue predominating in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, and West Bengal. Here, the accused are overwhelmingly women and often subjected to torture before being killed or forced to flee. India’s National Crime Records Bureau recorded 2,468 murders stemming from witchcraft accusations between 2001 and 2016, a number that likely fails to account for every incident and which does not include examples where accused witches survived their ordeal. Although these persecutions are illegal and various Indian states have passed laws targeting the practice, it continues to endure.

Papua New Guinea is a third region where violence against accused witches is still a serious issue. As in much of Africa and India, the fear of witchcraft has been a long-standing component of the traditional worldviews of many Melanesian peoples, but has been exacerbated by new diseases, growing economic inequality, and the spread of Pentecostalism. In comparison to precolonial periods, in which accused witches were often dealt with privately within their own kin groups, in the postcolonial era it has become increasingly common for the accused to be tortured and killed in a public setting. Again as in many other parts of the world, the majority of those accused are women, with estimates generally putting the annual number of anti-witch persecutions in the hundreds if not thousands. Legal reforms introduced in the 2010s have sought to combat these persecutions, but enforcement remains difficult.

Although a belief in the literal power of malevolent witchery is now marginal among Europeans and European-descended communities, these societies have also seen worries about witchcraft persevere in secularized form. Early modern fears about a cabal of secretive Devil-worshipers resurfaced in the Satanic ritual abuse hysteria of the 1980s and early 1990s, and again in the QAnon conspiracy theory of the late 2010s and 2020s. In these instances concerns about cursing have largely dissipated but have been replaced by a belief that Satanists are meeting for secretive rituals involving the abuse of children. In some cases innocent people have been subjected to legal prosecution, most notably in the McMartin Preschool Trial of 1987–90, while in other cases they have faced ostracism, threats, and violence.

Witchcraft as a morally neutral term

Many English language words have seen their meanings shift over time—something that is certainly true of witchcraft and witch. A second, far broader understanding of the term witch has come to encompass a varied range of people thought to manipulate supernatural or occult forces regardless of their intentions in doing so. Under this definition, witchcraft can be used not only to describe someone using these powers to curse another, but also for those manipulating such forces to provide healing, to engage in divination, or to lift the curses of others. In this sense, witchcraft is not always malevolent but can be for benevolent reasons too; thus, there can be good witches as well as bad ones.

The broadening of the word witch derives ultimately from Christian polemical literature. In medieval and early modern Europe, many Christians engaged in ritual actions, whether for healing, for creating amulets, or for locating lost property, that were outside the remit of the church authorities. Those engaged in such practices often believed that the supernatural forces they were invoking came from Christian theology; many recorded charms invoke the power of Christ, the Virgin Mary, and the saints, for example. There were other Christians, including among the literate elites, who nevertheless took a more critical view of such practices, viewing them not as real “religion” and instead dismissing them as “magic” or “superstition.” They were concerned that many of these practices relied on the power of demons and thus were damning otherwise professed Christians to an afterlife in Hell.

It was in this context that certain polemicists began using the pejoratively loaded term witch, normally used for malefactors, in a much broader sense for anyone engaged in supernaturally oriented rituals outside of a church-sanctioned context. In his 1584 book The Discoverie of Witchcraft, for instance, the English Protestant writer Reginald Scot used the term witch to describe all those who claimed to “worke miracles supernaturallie [sic].” This encompassed those individuals who offered various ritual services in a professional or semi-professional manner and who were commonly called cunning folk in English. By the 17th century some polemicists were referring to the cunning folk as white witches, and it was from these polemical writings that this latter term was later adopted by 19th-century folklorists. It seems to be through this body of literature that the term white witch ultimately filtered into general usage among English speakers, popularizing the idea that witches could be either good or bad.

Shona manShona healer dressed in traditional attire, Zimbabwe.

While vernacular ritual specialists in Christian Europe were being called white witches, roughly comparable figures in other societies, especially those of Africa, were increasingly labeled witch-doctors. The term was popularized by the 19th-century British explorer Mary Kingsley, who used it to denote ritual specialists devoted to countering harmful witchcraft. Although the term witch-doctor was widespread in much 19th and 20th-century writing, it has increasingly been abandoned by anthropologists and other scholars as a problematic relic of the European colonial worldview.

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The Wizard of OzThe Wicked Witch of the West and one of her flying monkeys in a publicity shot from the 1939 film The Wizard of Oz.

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Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix(From left): Rupert Grint, Evanna Lynch, Matthew Lewis, Emma Watson, Daniel Radcliffe, and Bonnie Wright in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix (2007), directed by David Yates.

The morally neutral use of the word witch has gained particular traction in fiction. An early and prominent example was L. Frank Baum’s 1900 novel The Wonderful Wizard of Oz and its 1939 film adaptation, in which the imagined Land of Oz is home to both good witches and bad witches. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, morally benevolent witches have become widespread in fantasy fiction, as in Terry Pratchett’s Discworld books, Jill Murphy’s The Worst Witch, or J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter series. The increasing popularization of the idea that witches can be good in turn contributed to growing numbers of people who actively considered themselves to be witches.

Witches as women

In European cultures witches have most commonly been stereotyped as being women, something reflected in the fact that the majority of those executed during the early modern witch trials were female. As a result, by the 20th century the term witch was sometimes used in a pejorative way to describe a woman seen as unpleasant or antisocial. It could also be used against a woman moving into areas of society traditionally dominated by men. Critics of various prominent female politicians active in Anglophone societies, such as Margaret Thatcher or Hillary Clinton, have referred to them as witches as a means of demeaning them. Given that this use of the term witch is used only against women and not against men, it can be argued that it is ultimately misogynistic in intent.

Elsewhere in Anglophone societies, the identity of the witch has also been adopted by some feminist women. In this context embracing the term is a form of reappropriation and is often accompanied by expressions of sympathy with the women accused of being witches during the early modern witch trials. Sympathetic accounts of those historically persecuted as witches for instance appear in the work of American first-wave feminist Matilda Joslyn Gage. Later, during the second wave of feminism, various feminist activists began to call themselves witches, especially in the United States. The most prominent example was a group that called itself WITCH, formed in New York in 1968. Their name was initially intended as an acronym for the Women’s International Terrorist Conspiracy from Hell, although the meanings of the acronym would be changed in accordance with whatever campaign the group was then engaging in. Chapters of the WITCH group would be reestablished in parts of the United States in 2015, reflecting a renewed feminist interest in witchcraft amid the emergence of fourth-wave feminism.

Modern religious witchcraft

Wiccan high priestess celebrating a lunar ritualHigh priestess Virginia Powell (left) leading a Wiccan lunar ritual in the temple at the Witch School in Hoopeston, Illinois, October 25, 2006.

From at least the early 20th century various individuals living in Europe and European-descended communities elsewhere have referred to themselves as witches and their religious practices as witchcraft. In embracing the identity of the witch, these people have adopted a counter-cultural stance to differentiate themselves from the Christian-dominated societies in which they typically reside. The embrace of the witch as a self-identity was probably facilitated by the spread of the secondary definition of witchcraft, that of it being a morally neutral practice, which was seen particularly in literature. At the same time, the emergence of modern religious witchcraft was only possible due to the dramatically declining belief in malevolent witchery within most Anglophone Western societies. With fewer and fewer people believing that curses really worked, it became less and less likely that those calling themselves witches would face criminal prosecution or violent persecution from their neighbors.

The largest and most prominent of the contemporary religious witchcraft traditions is Wicca, a modern Pagan religion that first came to public awareness in 1950s Britain. Early Wiccans typically believed that theirs was an ancient pre-Christian religion that had survived into the 20th century, a notion later refuted by historical scholarship. Many Wiccans now recognize that theirs is a new religion devised largely by British esotericists in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Wiccan beliefs and practices nevertheless draw heavily on the rhetoric and imagery of early modern witchcraft, and its practitioners typically consider themselves witches. Wiccan groups are called covens, engage in spell-casting, and celebrate seasonal festivities they call Sabbats. A Paganized version of the Devil appears in the form of the horned god, often part of a duotheistic theology alongside a goddess. The number of Wiccans is now in the low hundreds of thousands, with a large proportion practicing the religion solitarily rather than in a group setting.

Several other religious groups also adopted the identity of the witch. LaVeyan Satanism for instance emerged in 1960s California, established by Anton LaVey, who referred to his male followers as warlocks and their female counterparts as witches. His was formally an atheistic tradition, regarding Satan as a symbol for humanity’s animal nature. Like Wiccans, LaVeyan Satanists similarly engage in spell-casting within ceremonial frameworks. By the 1990s there were also a growing number of esotericists, some organized into small groups, calling themselves traditional witches. They often emphasized an aesthetic drawing on rural European folklore and developed new approaches to the iconography of early modern witchcraft beliefs, for instance espousing the idea that the witches’ sabbath existed on an astral plane that could be visited in a dream state.

A depiction of Wicca in Buffy the Vampire SlayerAmber Benson (left) and Alyson Hannigan as witches Tara Maclay and Willow Rosenberg, respectively, in the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer.

Growing teenage involvement in modern religious witchcraft was also evident by the 1990s, largely influenced by Wicca and fueled by American television shows like Buffy the Vampire Slayer (1997–2003) and Charmed (1998–2006). These productions typically presented witches not as old crones but as young women balancing their witchcraft with everyday life in more-or-less real-world, contemporary settings. Renewed teenage interest in modern religious witchcraft was further encouraged by social media beginning in the mid-2010s, most famously through the “WitchTok” hashtag on video hosting service TikTok.

The identity of the witch has also been adopted by some individuals practicing African diasporic traditions, those religions resulting from the forced transportation of West and Central Africans to the Americas. For several centuries, European observers have labeled these traditions with pejorative terms like witchcraft, magic, and superstition. In turn, by at least the late 20th century, some practitioners of these traditions had reappropriated the identity of the witch, especially through its Spanish synonym bruja. This can be seen among certain spirit mediums practicing Espiritismo in Puerto Rico, as well as among initiates of Palo, a Cuban religion influenced heavily by Kongo traditional practices. In the case of Palo, certain practitioners command the spirits of the dead to attack others, bringing such a practice within the traditional definition of malevolent witchcraft. By the mid-2010s, embrace of the term witch was also increasingly evident among practitioners of Hoodoo or Conjure, the traditional African-American healing and hexing system. This reflects the ongoing popularization of the term witch and its ever-growing conceptual expansion to include more and more practices within its remit.

Wicca

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Origins and development

Gerald GardnerGerald Gardner, 1963.

Although there are precursors to the movement, Wicca’s origins can be traced to a retired British civil servant, Gerald Brosseau Gardner (1884–1964). Gardner spent most of his career in Asia, where he became familiar with various indigenous religious traditions. He also read widely in Western esoteric literature, including the writings of the British occultist Aleister Crowley. Upon returning to Britain in the 1930s, Gardner became involved in the British occult community and claimed to have discovered a group of witches operating near England’s New Forest in 1939. He later alleged that it was their teachings that provided the basis of Wicca, although historians disagree on whether the New Forest group ever existed. If it did, it likely formed earlier in the 1930s. Following the 1951 repeal of Britain’s archaic witchcraft laws, Gardner published Witchcraft Today (1954), founded his first coven of followers, and, with the assistance of high priestess Doreen Valiente (1922–99), developed what became known as Gardnerian Wicca.

Wicca; Alex SandersAlex Sanders, 1971.

Other occultists drew on Gardner’s writings and on other texts about witchcraft to establish their own Wiccan traditions during the 1950s and ’60s. All typically claimed to be practicing a pre-Christian witchcraft religion that had clandestinely survived for centuries, although these claims were dismissed by historians following greater research into early modern witchcraft during the 1960s and ’70s. Among the most prominent of these occultists was the Englishman Alexander Sanders (1926–88), who founded Alexandrian Wicca, and the California-based Victor Anderson (1917–2001) and Cora Anderson (1915–2008), who spearheaded the Feri tradition. By the 1960s the word Wicca had emerged as a general term for this new religion, although there was some internal contestation as to its specific applicability.

Wicca’s rapid spread through the United States during the 1960s and ’70s was part of the broader countercultural zeitgeist, and many of those Americans joining Wicca were also influenced by the new social movements of the period. Informed by second-wave feminism, Dianic Wicca was formed in 1971 by Hungarian émigré Zsuzsanna Budapest (born 1940) as a women’s tradition placing central focus on the goddess. Drawing on the gay rights movement, the Minoan Brotherhood was established in 1977 by Eddie Buczynski (1947–89) as a Wiccan tradition for gay and bisexual men. Growing environmentalist sentiment also had an impact on Wicca, which by the 1970s was increasingly presenting itself as a “nature religion.” Radical left-wing politics came to the fore in the work of Starhawk (born 1951), an American practitioner who helped establish the Reclaiming tradition in San Francisco and wrote an influential book, The Spiral Dance (1979). Although many of Wicca’s early exponents espoused conservative and right-wing views, by the close of the 20th century the Wiccan community had come to be numerically dominated by people with progressive and left-leaning opinions.

As well as influencing other modern Pagan groups, such as the Church of All Worlds and modern Druidry, Wiccans played a prominent role in establishing organizations to defend Neo-Pagan civil rights, such as the U.K.-based Pagan Federation and the U.S.-based Covenant of the Goddess. These groups repeatedly challenged the erroneous perception that Wiccans were Satanists—a notion, promoted by certain Evangelical Christians, that proved particularly dangerous amid the Satanic ritual abuse panic of the 1980s and early ’90s.

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Wicca; The CraftPublicity still from the motion picture The Craft (1996).

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A depiction of Wicca in Buffy the Vampire SlayerAmber Benson (left) and Alyson Hannigan as witches Tara Maclay and Willow Rosenberg, respectively, in the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer.

During the religion’s first two decades, most people who joined Wicca did so through initiation into a preexisting coven. From the 1970s, however, a growing number of books were published that taught readers how to initiate themselves into Wicca, resulting in rapid growth in the number of solitary practitioners. Wicca’s growing public visibility led the creators of such American films and television shows as The Craft (1996), Buffy the Vampire Slayer (1997–2003), and Charmed (1998–2006) to draw on Wiccan terminology in depicting fictional witches. The popularity of these media portrayals fueled a teenage Wiccan subculture during the 1990s and 2000s, and a second surge in teenage interest arose in the 2010s, informed largely by social media. These tendencies were met with a mixed reception from more-established practitioners, some of whom felt that the popularizations trivialized the religion. Reacting to the changing image of Wicca, from the early 1990s onward, growing numbers of practitioners rebranded themselves as “traditional witches,” a term that was, confusingly, also employed by adherents of various non-Wiccan forms of occultism, such as Luciferianism.

Beliefs and practices

Wicca is a broad movement with much internal diversity in its beliefs and practices, in large part because of the absence of any single leader or centralized governing body. Within Wiccan groups it is often considered more important for all members to follow the same ritual procedures than to believe the same thing.

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Wiccans typically identify as Pagans and are heavily inspired by the extinct pre-Christian religions of Europe, North Africa, and western Asia and, to a lesser extent, by living non-Abrahamic religions such as Hinduism. They usually call themselves witches, although, in contrast to the traditional idea that witches are inherently bad, Wiccans give the term positive connotations. In the religion’s early decades, most Wiccans adhered to the idea of the Egyptologist-cum-folklorist Margaret Murray (1863–1963) that people persecuted as witches during the early modern period followed a pre-Christian religion. While many Wiccans no longer believe this discredited notion, they often feel a kinship with those historically accused of witchcraft.

Wiccan high priest performing a Lughnasadh ritualHigh priest Og Sperle performing a Wiccan Lughnasadh ritual alone in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, August 13, 2020.

Drawing on terminology associated with witchcraft, Wiccan groups call themselves covens. These are often led by a high priest and a high priestess and can have as few as three members, although 13 is repeatedly cited as the ideal number. Coven membership is typically granted through an initiation ritual. In several older traditions, such as Gardnerian and Alexandrian Wicca, initiates can advance through two additional degrees, reflecting the influence of Freemasonry’s three-degree system. Being initiated into a tradition connects the newcomer to that tradition’s lineage—something that certain Wiccans place great importance on. Admittance to a coven is typically at the discretion of its members: some covens are eager to recruit, and others are closed to new initiates. Most traditions welcome both men and women, although a few operate on a single-sex basis. Throughout Wicca’s history, there have been covens that excluded gay or transgender people; such exclusions are now less common, and the religion has a notably high proportion of LGBTQ adherents. Despite the importance of the coven structure in Wiccan history, most Wiccans today operate as solitary practitioners.

Wiccan rituals typically take place in a practitioner’s home, often at night, rather than in purpose-built structures. They take place in a circle, at one end of which is an altar. Common ritual tools include a censer of incense, a chalice, a pentacle, a wand, and a knife known as an athame, which is not used to draw blood. Some Wiccans perform rituals naked (or “skyclad”), while others wear robes or everyday clothing. Rituals are typically described as magical, designed to focus the willpower of the assembled Wiccans in the belief that doing so will bring about a desired change in the physical universe, commonly for healing or to assist those in need. Most Wiccans accept the so-called Wiccan Rede, an ethical code that states, “If it harm none, do what you will,” and they reject cursing as unethical. After a coven ritual is completed, a meal will often be shared.

Theological views vary among Wiccans. Gardner presented a theology devoted to a mother goddess and a horned god, claiming both to be deities created by an unknowable deistic divinity. Many subsequent Wiccan groups have had different theologies—for instance, promoting goddess monotheism, pantheism, or polytheistic perspectives embracing deities from many world mythologies. There is also divergence among Wiccans as to whether the deities literally exist or are instead symbolic or archetypal figures. Despite this variation, the tendency to draw deity names and images from pre-Christian Europe is a recurring feature, as are rituals to invoke a deity to enter and possess a coven member, often termed “drawing down the moon.” Afterlife beliefs similarly vary; many Wiccans believe in reincarnation or in an afterlife realm called the Summerland.

Wicca; SamhainSamhain celebration in Glastonbury, Somerset, England, November 4, 2017.

Reflecting many Wiccans’ self-perception as followers of a nature religion, Wicca typically incorporates eight seasonally based festivals into its calendar, collectively known as the Wheel of the Year. These festivals, called sabbats, are based largely on traditional celebrations drawn from different periods of British and Irish history: the winter solstice, or Yule (December 21 or 22); Imbolc (February 1 or 2); the vernal equinox, or Ostara (March 19 or 20); Beltane (April 30 or May 1); the summer solstice, or Litha (June 20 or 21); Lughnasadh (August 1); the autumnal equinox, or Mabon (September 22 or 23); and Samhain (October 31). In the Southern Hemisphere, many Wiccans switch these dates to ensure that the sabbats fit more appropriately with their local seasonal cycle.

Ethan Doyle White

witch hunt

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The origins of witch hunts

SatanismSatan and a sorcerer exchanging the Bible for a book of black magic, illustration from Compendium maleficarum, 1608.

In premodern Western society the mixture of irrational fear and a persecuting mentality led to the emergence of the witch hunts. In the 11th century, attitudes toward witchcraft and sorcery began to change, a process that would radically transform the Western perception of witchcraft and associate it with heresy and the Devil. By the 14th century, fear of heresy and of Satan had added charges of diabolism to the usual indictment of witches, maleficium (malevolent sorcery). It was this combination of sorcery and its association with the Devil that made Western witchcraft unique.

witchA witch and her familiars, illustration from a discourse on witchcraft, 1621; in the British Library (MS. Add. 32496, f. 53).

From the 14th through the 18th century, witches were believed to repudiate Jesus Christ, to worship the Devil and make pacts with him (selling one’s soul in exchange for Satan’s assistance), to employ demons to accomplish magical deeds, and to desecrate the crucifix and the consecrated bread and wine of the Eucharist (Holy Communion). It was also believed that they rode through the air at night to “sabbats” (secret meetings), where they engaged in sexual orgies and even had sex with Satan; that they changed shapes (from human to animal or from one human form to another); that they often had “familiar spirits” in the form of animals; and that they kidnapped and murdered children for the purpose of eating them or rendering their fat for magical ointments. This fabric of ideas was a fantasy. Although some people undoubtedly practiced sorcery with the intent to harm, and some may actually have worshipped the Devil, in reality no one ever fit the concept of the “witch.” Nonetheless, the witch’s crimes were defined in law. The witch hunts varied enormously in place and in time, but they were united by a common and coherent theological and legal worldview. Local priests and judges, though seldom experts in either theology or law, were nonetheless part of a culture that believed in the reality of witches as much as modern society believes in the reality of molecules.

The first witch hunts

Malleus maleficarumTitle page from a 1669 edition of the Malleus maleficarum, a handbook on witchcraft originally published in 1487.

Along with this older tradition, attitudes toward witches and the witch hunts of the 14th–18th centuries stemmed from a long history of the church’s theological and legal attacks on heretics. Accusations similar to those expressed by the ancient Syrians and early Christians appeared again in the Middle Ages. In France in 1022 a group of heretics in Orléans was accused of orgy, infanticide, invocations of demons, and use of the dead children’s ashes in a blasphemous parody of the Eucharist. These allegations would have important implications for the future because they were part of a broader pattern of hostility toward and persecution of marginalized groups. This pattern took shape in 1050–1300, which was also an era of enormous reform, reorganization, and centralization in both the ecclesiastical and secular aspects of society, an important aspect of which was suppressing dissent. The visible role played by women in some heresies during this period may have contributed to the stereotype of the witch as female.

The Devil, whose central role in witchcraft beliefs made the Western tradition unique, was an absolute reality in both elite and popular culture, and failure to understand the prevailing terror of Satan has misled some modern researchers to regard witchcraft and the campaign against it as a “cover” for political or gender conspiracies. The Devil was deeply and widely feared as the greatest enemy of Christ, keenly intent on destroying soul, life, family, community, church, and state. Witches were considered Satan’s followers, members of an antichurch and an antistate, the sworn enemies of Christian society in the Middle Ages, and a “counter-state” in the early modern period. If witchcraft existed, as people believed it did, then it was an absolute necessity to extirpate it before it destroyed the world.

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WitchcraftWitches being burned at the stake, color drawing, 16th century.

Because of the continuity of witch trials with those for heresy, it is impossible to say when the first witch trial occurred. Even though the clergy and judges in the Middle Ages were skeptical of accusations of witchcraft, the period 1300–30 can be seen as the beginning of witch trials. In 1374 Pope Gregory XI declared that all magic was done with the aid of demons and thus was open to prosecution for heresy. Witch trials continued through the 14th and early 15th centuries but with great inconsistency according to time and place. By 1435–50 the number of prosecutions had begun to rise sharply, and, toward the end of the 15th century, two events stimulated the hunts: Pope Innocent VIII’s publication in 1484 of the bull Summis desiderantes affectibus (“Desiring with the Greatest Ardour”) condemning witchcraft as Satanism, the worst of all possible heresies, and the publication in 1487 of Heinrich Kramer (Institoris) and Jacob Sprenger’s Malleus maleficarum (“The Hammer of Witches”), a learned but cruelly misogynist book blaming witchcraft chiefly on women. Widely influential, it was reprinted numerous times. The hunts were most severe from 1580 to 1630, and the last known execution for witchcraft was in Switzerland in 1782. The number of trials and executions varied widely according to time and place, but in fact no more than about 110,000 persons in all were tried for witchcraft, and no more than 40,000 to 60,000 executed. Although these figures are alarming, they do not remotely approach the feverishly exaggerated claims of some 20th- and 21st-century writers.

The “hunts” were not pursuits of individuals already identified as witches but efforts to identify those who were witches. The process began with suspicions and, occasionally, continued through rumours and accusations to convictions. The overwhelming majority of processes, however, went no further than the rumour stage, for actually accusing someone of witchcraft was a dangerous and expensive business. Accusations originated with the ill will of the accusers, or, more often, the accusers’ fear of someone having ill will toward them. The accusations were usually made by the alleged victims themselves, rather than by priests, lords, judges, or other “elites.” Successful prosecution of one witch sometimes led to a local hunt for others, but larger hunts and regional panics were confined (with some exceptions) to the years from the 1590s to 1640s. Very few accusations went beyond the village level.

Three-fourths of all European witch hunts occurred in western Germany, the Low Countries, France, northern Italy, and Switzerland—areas where prosecutions for heresy had been plentiful and charges of diabolism were prominent. In Spain, Portugal, and southern Italy, witch prosecutions seldom occurred, and executions were very rare. Ironically, the well-established bureaucratic structure of the Inquisition would help insulate Spain from the worst effects of ad hoc witch hunts. There were additional hunts in Spanish America, where the European pattern of accusations continued even though differences between the folklore of Europeans and that of Native Americans introduced some minor variations into the accusations. In Mexico the Franciscan friars linked Indigenous religion and magic with the Devil. Prosecutions for witchcraft there began in the 1530s, and by the 1600s Indigenous peasants were reporting stereotypical pacts with the Devil.

What sparked the Salem witch trials?Learn about the Salem witch trials and their legacy.

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Like the Spanish colonies, the English colonies repeated the European stereotype with a few minor differences. The first hanging for witchcraft in New England was in 1647, after the witch hunts had already abated in Europe, though a peculiar outbreak in Sweden in 1668–76 bore some similarity to that in New England. Although the lurid trials at Salem (now in Massachusetts) continue to draw much attention from American authors, they were only a swirl in the backwater of the witch hunts. The outbreak at Salem, where 19 people were executed, was the result of a combination of church politics, family feuds, and hysterical children, all in a vacuum of political authority. Prosecutions of witches in Austria, Poland, and Hungary took place as late as the 18th century.

The responsibility for the witch hunts can be distributed among theologians, legal theorists, and the practices of secular and ecclesiastical courts. The theological worldview—derived from the early Christian fear of Satan and reinforced by the great effort to reform and conform that began in 1050—was intensified again by the fears and animosities engendered by the Reformation of the 16th century. The Protestant Reformation and Roman Catholic Counter-Reformation heightened the fear of witchcraft by promoting the idea of personal piety (individuals alone with their Bible and God), which enhanced individualism while downplaying community. The emphasis on personal piety exacerbated the rigid characterization of people as either “good” or “bad.” It also aggravated feelings of guilt and the psychological tendency to project negative intentions onto others. Moreover, just as the growth of literacy and of reading the Bible helped spread dissent, so did they provoke resistance and fear. Sermons and didactic treatises, including “devil books” warning of Satan’s power, spread both the terror of Satan and the corresponding frantic need to purge society of him. Both Protestants and Roman Catholics were involved in the prosecutions, as the theology of the Protestant Reformers on the Devil and witchcraft was virtually indistinguishable from that of the Roman Catholics. More differences existed among Protestants and among Roman Catholics than between the two religious groups, and regions in which Protestant–Roman Catholic tensions were high did not produce significantly more trials than other regions.

Because accusations and trials of witches took place in both ecclesiastical and secular courts, the law played at least as important a role as religion in the witch hunts. Local courts were more credulous and therefore more likely to be strict and even violent in their treatment of supposed witches than were regional or superior courts. Crude practices such as pricking witches to see whether the Devil had desensitized them to pain; searching for the “devil’s mark,” an oddly shaped mole or wart; or “swimming” (throwing the accused into a pond; if she sank, she was innocent because the water accepted her) occurred on the local level. Where central authority—e.g., bishops, kings, or the Inquisition—was strong, convictions were fewer and sentences milder. Ecclesiastical and civil authorities usually tried to restrain witch trials and rarely manipulated witch hunts to obtain money or power.

The witch executions occurred in the early modern period, the time in Western history when capital punishment and torture were most widespread. Judicial torture, happily in abeyance since the end of the Roman period, was revived in the 12th and 13th centuries; other brutal and sadistic tortures occurred but were usually against the law. Torture was not allowed in witch cases in Italy or Spain, but where used it often led to convictions and the identification of supposed accomplices. The latter was the greatest evil of the system, for a victim might be forced to name acquaintances, who were in turn coerced into naming others, creating a long chain of accusations. Witch trials were equally common in ecclesiastical and secular courts before 1550, and then, as the power of the state increased, they took place more often in secular ones.Among the main effects of the papal judicial institution known as the Inquisition was in fact the restraint and reduction of witch trials that resulted from the strictness of its rules. It investigated whether the charges resulted from personal animosity toward the accused; it obtained physicians’ statements; it did not allow the naming of accomplices either with or without torture; it required the review of every sentence; and it provided for whipping, banishment, or even house arrest instead of death for first offenders. Like the Inquisition, the Parlement of Paris (the supreme court of northern France) severely restrained the witch hunts. After an outbreak of hunts in France in 1587–88, increasingly skeptical judges began a series of restraining reforms marked by the requirement of “obligatory appeal” to the Parlement in cases of witchcraft, making accusations even more expensive and dangerous.

The decline and legacy of the witch hunts

The decline of witch hunts, like their rise, was gradual. By the late 16th century many prosperous and professional people in western Europe were being accused, so the leaders of society began to have a personal interest in checking the hunts. The legal use of torture declined in the 17th and 18th centuries, and there was a general retreat from religious intensity following the wars of religion (from the 1560s to the 1640s). The gradual demise during the late 17th and early 18th centuries of the previous religious, philosophical, and legal worldview encouraged the ascendancy of an existent but often suppressed skepticism. Increasing literacy, mobility, and means of communication set the stage for social acceptance of this changing outlook.

Nevertheless, the reasons for the decline in the witch hunts are as difficult to discern as the reasons for their origins. The theory best supported by the evidence is that the increasing power of the centralized courts, such as the Inquisition and the Parlement, acted to begin a process of “decriminalization” of witchcraft. These courts reduced the number of witch trials significantly by 1600, half a century before legal theory, legislation, and theology began to dismiss the notion of witchcraft in France and other countries.

Explanations of the witch hunts continue to vary, but recent research has shown some of these theories to be improbable or of negligible value. Most scholars agree that the prosecutions were not driven by political or gender concerns; they were not attacks on backward, or rural, societies; they did not function to express or relieve local tensions; they were not a result of the rise of capitalism or other macroeconomic changes; they were not the result of changes in family structure or in the role of women in society; and they were not an effort by cultural elites to impose their views on the populace. Moreover, the evidence does not indicate a close correlation between socioeconomic tension and witchcraft, though agrarian crises seem to have had some effect.

One of the most important aspects of the hunts remains unexplained. No satisfactory explanation for the preponderance of women among the accused has appeared. Although the proportions varied according to region and time, on the whole, about three-fourths of convicted witches were female. Women were certainly more likely than men to be economically and politically powerless, but that generalization is too broad to be helpful, for it holds true for societies in periods where witchcraft is absent. The malevolent sorcery more often associated with men, such as harming crops and livestock, was rarer than that ascribed to women. Young women were sometimes accused of infanticide, but midwives and nurses were not particularly at risk. Older women were more frequently accused of casting malicious spells than were younger women, because they had had more time to establish a bad reputation, and the process from suspicion to conviction often took so long that a woman might have aged considerably before charges were actually advanced. Although many witchcraft theorists were not deeply misogynist, many others were, notably the authors of the infamous Malleus maleficarum. Resentment and fear of the power of the “hag,” a woman released from the constraints of virginity and then of maternal duties, has been frequently described in Mediterranean cultures. Folklore and accounts of trials indicate that a woman who was not protected by a male family member might have been the most likely candidate for an accusation, but the evidence is inconclusive. Children were often accusers (as they were at Salem), but they were sometimes also among the accused. Most accused children had parents who had been accused of witchcraft.

In the long run, it may be better simply to describe the witch hunts than to try to explain them, since the explanations are so diverse and complicated. Yet one general explanation is valid: the unique character of the witch hunts was consistent with the prevailing worldview of intelligent, educated, experienced people for more than three centuries.

Are witches real? Here's what the experts say on spells, covens and magic

For centuries, witches have been the subject of fiction, folklore, fascination and persecution.

Mention witchcraft, and most people immediately think of black hats, bubbling cauldrons and cackling hags who hatch evil plots like the children-eating monster in “Hansel and Gretel” or the Sanderson sisters in “Hocus Pocus.”

There's no doubt that when it comes to witches, there's an undeniable aura of mystery and intrigue that has spawned countless books, movies and TV shows, not to mention Halloween costumes and decorations.

Which poses the question: Are witches real?

The answer is two-fold. The sort of witches that fly around on broomsticks and are gifted with magical powers can only be found in Harry Potter books and other fictional tales.

But that doesn't mean there aren't witches. Because indeed, there are — just not of the supernatural variety.

“Your average witch is just somebody who lives next to you and has this spiritual practice you don’t know about,” Deborah Blake, a self-identified witch and the author of “Llewellyn’s Little Book of Witchcraft,” tells TODAY.com.

In fact, witches can be found just about everywhere.

To better understand modern-day witches and witchcraft, TODAY.com spoke to Blake and a variety of other experts to learn more about their beliefs, the basis of their spirituality, the history of their persecution and, yes, spells, charms, covens and broomsticks, too.

Are witches real?

“Witchcraft, as we see it often in horror films or supernatural TV series, that doesn't really bear much resemblance to the practice of witchcraft around this country,” Alex Mar, journalist and author of the book “Witches in America," tells TODAY.com.

“Most of the time, when people are talking about actual practicing witches today, what they’re really talking about are Pagans,” she explains. “Not every pagan will call themselves a witch, but a lot of them do work with different kinds of rituals and spells.”

What is a pagan? By definition, it's someone whose spirituality and practices differ from more mainstream religions like Christianity and Judaism. Quite often, Pagans tend to be earth-focused, as well as polytheistic, which means they worship multiple gods and/or goddesses.

According to Mar, there are currently around a million practicing Pagans in the U.S., and part of what draws some of them into the religion is that unlike more traditional Christian beliefs, females are allowed to be spiritual leaders instead of just males.

Many witches practice spells and rituals as part of their nature-based religion. Manuel Breva Colmeiro / Getty Images

“It changes that power dynamic, and I think that’s part of what’s made it very attractive to a lot of people,” Mar says.

Among those drawn to witchcraft is Blake, who says she's been “out of the broom closet for a very long time” and writes books on the subject to help increase understanding around the practice's ideologies and traditions.

“There is a lot of misinformation about witches and witchcraft out there,” says Blake.

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Unlike fictional Hollywood stereotypes, being a witch is a religion and a spiritual path, says Blake. “It’s a way of looking at the world and how you live your life. It’s a nature-based religion, which means that a lot of it is connected to the cycles of the moon and the cycles of the year."

And within that religion, the earth is sacred, explains Mar.

“Witchcraft practices that are serious really spend a lot of time acknowledging, through ritual and ceremony, the different solstices and equinoxes and the changing of the seasons,” she explains.

What's the difference between witches and Wiccans?

While many people use “witch” and “Wiccan” interchangeably, they aren't necessarily the same thing.

“Wicca is a branch of witchcraft,” says Blake. “All witches are not Wiccans, although all Wiccans are witches.”

According to Helen A. Berger, Ph.D, affiliated scholar at Brandeis University's Women’s Studies Research Center, Wicca, like witchcraft, is a form of Paganism.

“Wicca is a religion whose beginnings go back to the UK in the 1930s," Berger tells TODAY.com. “There is a ritual calendar of the 8 sabbats that denote the beginning and height of each season.”

Berger explains that Wicca is a religion “in which magic is part of the practice.”

And witches?

“Witches are magic practitioners. They may or may not participate in the yearly cycle of the year," she says, adding that most of them do celebrate the seasons and moon cycles.

Another difference between Wiccans and witches is that many Wiccans abide by the Wiccan Rede, a credo that says “Harm none and do as you will,” which essentially means you're free to do as you please, unless it adversely impacts someone else.

Blake explains, “In theory, most — but not all — witches believe that you can do magic as long as it doesn't hurt anybody else,” she says. “And you can live your life however you want, as long as it doesn't hurt anybody else or yourself.”

Do witches cast spells?

Lighting a candle in honor of a loved one is similar to a witch's spell. Getty Images

In movies and TV shows, witches are almost always casting dramatic magic spells. Think Harry Potter pointing his wand and shouting “Expecto Patronum!” Or Samantha Stevens twitching her nose and making her next-door neighbor disappear.

In real life, however, witchcraft is much more focused on rituals, ceremonies and the changing of the seasons.

That said, many witches actually do cast spells. Just not the kind that turn princes into frogs. “I do have a lot of frogs in my garden pond. None of them of my ex-boyfriends, I promise,” jokes Blake.

Unlike the fictional spells portrayed in pop culture, Mar says to consider the practice as more of a folk spell, something that's probably more common than you think, but not really thought of as “a spell” per se.

“A lot of people have grandmothers who would do things with herbs in kitchen or might light a candle in front of a photograph of a relative who passed away.”

In fact, according to Mar, witch spells really aren't much different than conventional prayers.

“If you believe, like many do, that prayer is meaningful and can even be effective, and you can pray for any number of things, then that's pretty much what casting a spell is about. You can pray for positive things, and you can pray for things that are actually pretty greedy,” Mar tells TODAY.com.

Regardless of their purpose, Blake says that doing spells requires both knowledge and experience.

“Some people have more of a gift for it than others, just like everything else. But you get better with practice,” Blake says. "You can also, either accidentally or on purpose, do damage with it. It's a power, and no power is without a double-edged sword.”

In fact, a commonly held belief in the pagan community is that whatever you do unto others, you should be prepared to have come back on you.

“It may not be right away, but it'll be down the line. It's sort of a spin on the belief in karma,” says Mar. “That's really powerful. It's taken really seriously.”

What are covens?

Covens are defined as groups of witches who gather regularly.Dina Belenko Photography / Getty Images

Witches are often associated with covens, which are defined as groups of witches who gather regularly.

Think of it as a church congregation: People who share the same beliefs and regularly gather together in the spirit of prayer and community, minus the church or mosque.

“They are a small religious group with whom you celebrate religious holidays. In the Witches' case, these are mostly sabbaths, the six holidays throughout the year to denote the changing seasons and their meaning in people’s lives and the moon cycles," Berger tells TODAY.com of covens.

Unlike a large congregation commonly found in conventional religion, covens tend to be on the smaller side, typically around a dozen or so people, and consist of witches who are able to meet on a regular basis.

Covens also commemorate life passages like the birth of a child, weddings, menopause or death, says Berger. “Some have a long life span, some very short, some could have 5 people some 50 or more,” she explains, adding that, for the most part, practitioners of witchcraft tend to be solitary.

The persecution of witches in history

In 1692, accused witches were charged and executed for witchcraft in Salem, Massachusetts.Courtesy Sarah Lemire

Whether you call them shamen, alchemists, herbalists, Wiccans or witches, the practice of witchcraft, by any name, has been around almost as long as humans have.

“The idea of magic users or people who did magic is in every culture, no matter how far back you go,” says Blake.

However, it was around the 15th century that the Christian church deemed witches “willing disciples” of the devil, launching a campaign of hunting and executing presumed witches in Europe and America that lasted nearly 300 years, according to the Library of Congress.

In France alone, there were approximately 2000 witch trials between 1550 and 1700.

There was the dark chapter in America's history when, in 1692, dozens of men and women (as young as four years old) were arrested and charged with suspicion of witchcraft in and around Salem, Massachusetts.

In all, 19 were hanged, five died in jail and one pressed to death with stones.

In the years since the witch trials, the unfairly accused have been exonerated and, in 1957, Massachusetts issued a formal apology for the trials, stating that the proceedings were “shocking” and the result of a “popular hysterical fear of the Devil in the community.”

Broomsticks, cauldrons and other myths explained

Kathy Najimy, Bette Midler and Sarah Jessica Parker in “Hocus Pocus.”United Archives GmbH / Alamy Stock Photo

In movies like “Hocus Pocus,” witches often fly around on brooms, wear pointy hats and have at least one trusty black cat as a side kick.

Although Blake's favorite color is black (and she's got five cats), she says the rest of the stereotypical witchy attributes begin and end on the big screen.

“Certainly there are some elements to that sort of mainstream culture,” she says, including traditional “witch” fare like candles, stones, crystals, statues, altars and other “tools of the trade,” as Blake calls them.

“But I also have a garden, and that garden is part of my spiritual practice. So, that's not something you're going to see in the mainstream — the way I connect to nature,” she says.

When it comes to their signature black hats, Mar says that after years of studying and spending time with various covens, few witches, if any, wear them in real life.

“I really never encountered a serious witch who would ever wear a pointy hat, except to be cute, as a 'wink-wink' kind of joke. But never in a ritual scenario,” says Mar.

As for riding brooms, Blake says the association is likely linked to ergot, a fungus often used as a hallucinogen back in the Middle Ages, similar to LSD.

Witches flying on brooms might be related to ergot, a hallucinogen used in the Middle Ages.Getty Images

“There was a magical thing that witches supposedly used made up of hallucinogenic herbs, and they might have believed they were actually flying on brooms when they weren't,” Blake tells TODAY.

Interestingly enough, when abused, the hallucinogen can result in ergot poisoning, which, according to the U.S. Forest Service, causes convulsions, muscle spasms and hallucinations among other things.

If the symptoms sound exactly like the criteria used to determine if someone was “bewitched” back in the days of the witch trials, it's because they are.

“Most historians today believe that the witchcraft trials that led to thousands of deaths and burnings at the stake in Europe during the Dark Ages were likely related to outbreaks of ergot poisonings,” the U.S. Forest Service writes, stating that the victims of the Salem Witch Trials were likely among them.

According to Blake, brooms and cauldrons might also be associated with witches simply because they were items exclusively used by women to clean and cook.

"Back in the days when you went to any house, there'd be a broom leaning against the outside of the house," says Blake.

“Some people associated it with the feminine nature of witches, which is also, partially, how the whole idea of them stirring cauldrons came in. Because the cauldron was basically a big pot that hung over the fire, and dinner was made in it.”

Famous Witches in History from Ancient to Modern Times

Categories Witchcraft
Post date April 12, 2024
Comments 6 Comments

How we define the word witch is truly on an individual basis. Since the dawn of time, there have been witches. And there will continue to be until humans no longer exist. A witch, in my honest opinion, is someone who is magical in nature. They seek wisdom, see beauty in everything, and practice the art of magic in one way or another. In this article, we explore some of the more famous witches in history including legendary witches, accused witches in the Medieval Period, and modern witches. Let’s meet them!

Famous Witches in History

Isobel Gowdie

Perhaps my favorite famous witch in history is the Scottish witch Isobel Gowdie. Her story takes place in seventeenth century Scotland, where she was accused and (supposedly) willingly confessed to being a witch. There’s much speculation on whether Isobel was simply psychotic, whether she was forced or coerced into confessing, or whether her confessions were real.

Emma Wilby, a scholar on witchcraft, dedicated an entire book to analyzing Isobel’s confessions. She theorizes Isobel Gowdie was a woman who practiced a form of shamanism carried on from past centuries. Moreover, Gowdie’s life and confessions are much more complex than just one theory could explain. Gowdie had a way of speaking that seems almost bard-like. If indeed she confessed willingly and these were her true confessions, she was a talented woman.

Morgan Le Fay

Morgan le Fay’s existence is most likely one of legend and ranges from her being an evil nemesis to a helpful priestess of Avalon. While Morgan le Fay’s existence cannot be proven, those who believe in the Arthurian legend believe in her power. Some Arthurian stories denounce her allegiance to her brother, twisting her into a vengeful witch who wants to destroy her brother’s kingdom. However, other legends say she aided King Arthur in his dying hour by taking him to Avalon. We will never know the real story, or if it truly happened, but modern witches believe in Morgan Le Fay—and that she was, indeed, a famous witch in history who might have once been a goddess.

Morgan Le Fay

Aradia

Aradia was a famous witch in history whose story starts in Italy. She is the main character in Aradia, The Gospel of the Witches, a book written by Charles Leland in the 19th century. The book’s authenticity is debated yet helped fuel the resurgence of witchcraft in the 20th century. Charles Leland claimed he was given the information by a woman named Maddelena, and it was in this book that Aradia was created. According to the book, Aradia was the daughter of the goddess Diana and Lucifer. Aradia was a goddess incarnated on earth (similar to a messiah or Christ). Her followers were a group of witches that had survived since the 12th century. They used witchcraft to fend off the Church and keep their ways alive.

Marie Laveau

The most famous Voodoo queen of all time is Marie Laveau. Marie was born a free black woman in New Orleans in the mid-1700’s and became the most well-known voodoo priestess in Louisiana and arguably the world. Everyone came to Marie Laveau for cures and advice. Marie attended mass religiously yet she was also a priestess of Voodoo and practiced the magical arts. All classes of New Orleans society called on Marie Laveau for magical spells. Marie Laveau, a famous witch in history, lived well into her nineties. Her grave in New Orleans’ Saint Louis Cemetery #1 gets more visitors on Halloween than Elvis Presley’s. This famous witch may have been a voodoo queen, but she was also a wise woman and knew her craft well.

The Queen of Voodoo

The Witch of Endor

Back in Biblical times, perhaps the most famous witch in ancient history is The Witch of Endor. We hear of her in the book of 1 Samuel in the 28th chapter. Apparently, King Saul calls on her to raise the prophet Samuel’s spirit from the dead to advise him in battle. Saul was having a particularly difficult time defeating the Philistines and all attempts to summon Samuel’s spirit through other means failed. Some accounts say God brought Samuel’s spirit to Saul, while others claim it was in fact the Witch of Endor.

Anne Boleyn

Anne Boleyn was the second wife of the infamous King Henry VIII of England in the sixteenth century. Scholars say Anne Boleyn was not a witch, but that depends on your definition. She engaged in mystical practices and supposedly employed magical advisers. Throughout her years as a Queen of England, Anne Boleyn became an educated, extremely intelligent woman of power. Despite the rumors and accusations of treason, adultery, incest, and witchcraft, which led to her beheading, Anne is known as one of the most influential queens and witches in history.

Grigori Rasputin

Ever seen the movie Anastasia? It’s based on a true story about the last Czar of Russia Nicholas Romanov II and the last-surviving faily member – Princess Anastasia. In the movie – the evil antagonist, and supposed enemy to the Romanov dynasty, was a man named Grigori Rasputin. In reality, Rasputin was close to the royal family and many claimed it was his fault the Romanovs were assassinated and the dynasty fell. He was accused of black magic and witchcraft, among other awful things. Yet Rasputin claimed to be a holy man in God’s service and mystic. He will go down as one of the most famos witches in history, whether a true witch or not.

Rasputin on the left.

Alison Device

One of the most infamous accused witches in English history came from the Pendle Witch Trials in 1612 – Alison Device. Alison confessed to many counts of witchcraft including employing a familiar to hurt her enemies, charming milk into butter, and killing children. While these confessions were coerced out of Alison, the story is one of great intrigue even today. Today, there’s a statue of one of the Pendle Witches standing in Roughlee honoring those accused.

Tituba

The most famous witch trials in history are the Salem Witch Trials, at least in American history. Movies, books, and TV shows have been inspired by the true witch trials of dozens of women and men in Salem, MA in the seventeenth century. The supposed witch who started it all was known as Tituba. She was a slave (some say Native American, others say African or a combination) in the Parris house and was accused of witchcraft by two young girls. Later, Tituba confessed to making “witchcakes” and to knowing magical practices of protection against evil from her time living in Barbados. No one knows exactly what happened to Tituba, she disappears from the record after the trials. People believe she was purchased as a slave by another family.

Tituba of the Salem Witch Trials

Gerald Gardner

Gerald Gardner is called the father of modern witchcraft because he is the founder of Wicca. His story goes that he was shown the “old ways”, that of witchcraft, by a coven in the New Forest and decided to keep the religion alive by making it public knowledge. While Gardner had his faults and is accused of misdeeds, many Wiccans and Pagans alike, are able to come out of the broom closet today, without fear of being hanged or guillotined at least partly because of Gardner.

Gardner’s Magical Beginnings

Gardner was an amateur anthropologist and archaeologist, and his interest in cultures fueled his desire to study esotericism. He claimed to have been a part of a Rosicrucian Order, and while in the order he met witches from the New Forest Coven. He was initiated into the coven in nineteen-thirty-nine. Gardner moved to London in the nineteen-forties and began discussing his unorthodox beliefs with the public. Moreover garnering much attention to the Old Religion that supposedly survived centuries of persecution.

Founder and Father of Wicca

Gardner is known as the Father of Wicca, because he was the first to talk about Wicca to the public. He founded the first tradition of Wicca known as Gardnerian Wicca. Gardner would write a few books on the topic and participate in interviews. Gardner met various individuals like Doreen Valiente, Aleister Crowley, and others.

Gardner’s Legacy (And Controversy)

Gerald Gardner died of a heart attack in nineteen-sixty-four while in transport on a ship to Lebanon. Gardner’s methods (including ritual nudity) have come into question by modern witches. But his tradition of Wicca remains strong to this day. Many Wiccans who are initiated into a true Gardnerian Wiccan coven can claim lineage back to Gerald Gardner.

Sybil Leek

Sybil Leek was taught witchcraft at a young age and was practicing during Gerald Gardner’s time. She’s one of the most famous witches in modern history and has written many well-known occult books, such as Diary of a Witch, Sybil Leek’s Book of Herbs, and Star Speak: Your Body Language from the Stars. Sybil claims she was taught some of her knowledge of witchcraft by Aleister Crowley and that she was supposed to be his successor, until he went down a darker path. She was a well-known psychic and kept a pet jackdaw. Sybil Leek died in the 1980’s as “Britain’s most famous witch” but was living in Florida at the time. Her book Diary of a Witch was influential to many.

Laurie Cabot

Laurie Cabot is the “Official Witch of Salem” and the most famous witch today, in my opinion. She is also an author and wise woman, owned her own witchcraft shop in Salem for many years, and records videos on her YouTube channel! She’s aided the police in a murder case, as well as taught college classes on the occult. Read her book Power of the Witch to get an understanding as to Cabot’s ubiquitous wisdom.

Laurie Cabot

Scott Cunningham

Scott Cunningham preferred to call himself a Wiccan above a “witch” for personal, spiritual reasons. He’s written many books on various topics of Wicca, such as kitchen witchcraft, magical herbs, magical stones, earth power, and practicing solitary Wicca. Unfortunately, there will be no more wonderful Wiccan books published by Scott Cunningham because he passed in 1993. He continues to be one of the most famous witches in history and one of the most loved Wiccan authors in the Wiccan world today.

Doreen Valiente

Doreen Valiente was a witch in the twentieth century who wrote The Charge of the Goddess, An ABC of Witchcraft, and Witchcraft for Tomorrow. She was responsible for writing much of Gerald Gardner’s Book of Shadows and went on to work with Robert Cochrane in the Clan of Tubal Cain for a period of time. Separate from her workings with Gardner and Cochrane, Valiente was a wise and witch of her time and passed in 1999.

The Famous Witch’s Interests Grow

As a young adult, she practiced magic with a friend and came across literature from a deceased doctor who was part of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn. This book intrigued her, as well as Aleister Crowley’s books on ceremonial magic. In addition, Doreen studied esoteric religions including Spiritualism. Her passion for the mysteries only grew.

Valiente Joins A Coven

In the 1950s, Doreen Valiente reached out to Gerald Gardner, the founder of modern day Wicca. He invited her to join the Bricket Wood Coven, and she eventually became High Priestess. Following her time with Gardner, Valiente joined the Coven of Atho and the Clan of Tubal Cain.

Valiente’s Literary Success

But Valiente isn’t known for the covens she joined, she is most well-known for her writing. Valiente wrote The Charge of the Goddess and The Witch’s Rune, poetic pieces included in the Gardnerian Book of Shadows. Her research of the witch trials helped her write The ABCs of Witchcraft and Natural Magic. Valiente’s presence in the witchcraft community didn’t fizzle after her death, and many Wiccans and pagans honor her contribution to the movement.

Doreen Valiente

Rosaleen Norton

Another famous witch in recent history was Rosaleen Norton. Known as the Witch of Kings Cross, Rosaleen became a spectacle in Australia with wild paintings of gods and demons. Norton started her own coven called The Goat-Fold in the mid-twentieth century. Norton was influenced by the dark side of magic. But she wasn’t a Satanist. She was a pantheist. It was difficult for people to separate her dark artwork from her religious claims. Her provocative artwork goes on display from time to time in Sydney still.

Norton’s Controversial Pagan Paintings

Norton lost jobs with various newspapers and magazines because her artwork was too lewd or provocative. She also had the police crowding her at every art exhibition, sometimes confiscating her work. Norton claimed she was a pantheist pagan who worshiped Pan, although the papers spread rumors that she was a Satanist who engaged in animal sacrifice. Norton denied the malicious claims.

The Famous Witch Norton’s Form of the Craft

Rosaleen is known as the Witch of Kings Cross, and she started her own form of witchcraft “The Goat Fold”. Despite saying she wasn’t a Satanist, it was difficult for people to ignore Norton’s interest in demons. Her artwork has gone on display a few times in Sydney since her death in 1979, and a few biographies have been written on her life.

Alex Sanders, Famous Witch and Founder Alexandrian Wicca

Alex Sanders is mostly known establishing Alexandrian Wicca, an offshoot of traditional Gardnerian Wicca. He was a famous witch in the 1960s and 70s, appearing on television shows for interviews and in documentaries. Sanders claimed he was the “King of Witches” and married Maxine Sanders, much to the dismay of a few prominent Gardnerian Wiccan members including Patricia Crowther. Sanders was one of those people – you either loved him or hated him. But, being the High Priest of his own tradition, I don’t think he much cared. There’s quite a bit of controversy surrounding his life.

The Bell Witch

While some might argue the Bell Witch isn’t an actual witch but a poltergeist, I beg to differ. This terrifying tale started in the early eighteen hundreds in a small town in Tennessee with a family by the last name Bell. The Bell family was tormented by a disembodied voice and a spirit that could cause literal physical harm. The haunting became so famous nationwide, that even Andrew Jackson came to investigate and found it to be eerily true. But who was the Bell witch, exactly? The theory goes that a local woman felt her property was stolen by John Bell, the patriarch of the Bell family, and sought revenge by sending her astral double to torment and terrify the Bell family. Read more here.

The Blair Witch

Again, another legendary witch who might only be of spectral manifestation, the Blair Witch of Maryland fame. You might have also watched the movie The Blair Witch Project from the nineties and either loved it or hated it. Either way, locals in Burkittsville, MD claim the movie is based off of a real local legend. A witch supposedly lived in the woods in Burkittsville in the eighteen hundreds…a witch whose ghost still haunts the area. You can read more about the Blair Witch here.

Moll Dyer

Moll Dyer didn’t curse George Washington. Sorry to the sources who claim this. Moll Dyer was a woman who lived close to the Leonardtown, Maryland area in the sixteen hundreds. Her family, The Dyers, have been living there for the past four hundred years. I know because I was born and raised in Leonardtown, MD. If you want a good source on this famous local witch from history, read a book like Sister Witch by David W. Thompson. Moll was blamed for the local settlement’s harsh winter and other problems. A mob went to her home in the middle of the night, set it on fire, and drove her into the cold. She died, legend says frozen to a rock. That rock now sits preserved in the historical society in St. Mary’s County (thanks to my mom!)

The Fisherwife of Palermo

In the Sicilian Witch Trials, a woman of whom is called the Fisherwife of Palermo was accused of witchcraft AND of consorting with the Donas de Fuera (faeries). She shockingly confessed to going to a magical island and pledging her allegiance to the fairy folk when she was only nine years old. Her tale seemed to magical to believe and the court dismissed it as a “dream”. And so she retained her freedom.

Giles Corey

One of the most famous witches from the Salem Witch Trials is Giles Corey. The Salem Witch Trials is probably one of the most infamous witch trials in the world. Unfortunately, many of the people accused were completely innocent and probably didn’t practice magic of any kind. Though I have my suspicions about a few. Giles Corey, though? This guy was accused of witchcraft, then pressed to death with rocks in order for the officials to obtain a confession. Of which they never received. May he rest in peace.

Shirley Jackson

One of my favorite authors of all time, Shirley Jackson was rumored to have been a witch when she was still alive. Her husband even admitted that she was into mystical topics and practices, yet Shirley herself never said the words. I honestly don’t blame her. If you’ve ever read The Haunting of Hill House, or if you’ve even seen the movie or TV series based on her work, you’ll know just how magical this woman truly was. We Have Always Lived in the Castle is another one of Jackson’s magical pieces adapted to a Netflix film recently.

Bathsheba Sherman, The Famous Witch in the Conjuring

Are you a horror movie fan? If you’ve seen The Conjuring, you might have heard of Bathsheba Sherman. She was the witch who inspired the making of the film. In fact, the story is based off a famous haunting in Rhode Island, in which a family was tormented by the ghost of a woman they believed lived there in the late eighteen hundreds. Upon investigation, legend had it that Bathsheba was accused of hurting an innocent child then killing herself right after cursing the land she lived on. The real story is probably much less intense than this, but that’s the legend. Interestingly, the haunted Rhode Island house was up for sale not long ago!

Christopher Penczak, Modern Witch and Author

There are few modern witch authors who have influenced my practice like Christopher Penczak. His work is widely known through the witchcraft and pagan community, including his series the Inner Temple of Witchcraft and the Outer Temple of Witchcraft. Penczak isn’t just knowledgeable in the magical arts but also the healing arts and has written one of my favorite books on Reiki called Magick of Reiki. I highly recommend checking his work out!

Doreen Virtue, Controversial Witch Turned Christian

Ahhh, YEP. I’m adding her to the list. Doreen Virtue is a name that stirs up lots of debate and controversy in the modern witchcraft community. Why? Because this is a woman who claimed to be a witch and mystic for many years, sold thousands of angel oracle cards and mystical books, only to claim in recent years that her past work was the “devil’s”. This famous witch turned Christian and denounced her metaphysical work. Which truly put the community in an uproar. So, whether she’s a witch now or not, I include her here because she is and was a well-known name.

Stewart and Janet Farrar: Famous Witch Couple

Stewart and Janet Farrar were an English married couple who led a Wiccan coven in the late twentieth century. They are well known for their literary contributions, including A Witches Bible, The Witches’ Way, and Eight Sabbats for Witches. In the nineteen-seventies and nineteen-eighties, the Farrars appeared in a few interviews to answer questions about modern Wicca.

The Farrars were initiated into Alexander and Maxine Sanders’ Coven; however, in the early nineteen-seventies, the Farrars started their own coven. Stewart passed away in 2000, and Janet re-married in 2014. Janet continues to write books and lecture on Wicca in various countries along with her husband Gavin.

Margaret & Philippa Flower

After being fired from their positions at a castle in 1618, the Flower sisters supposedly cursed the Earl of Rutland’s family. Following their “maleficia”, the eldest son of the Earl died. Both Margaret and Philippa Flower confessed to using the dark arts and having familiar spirits. The young women also brought their mother into their confessions, stating she aided them in cursing the Earl’s family. By rubbing the Earl’s glove onto the back of her familiar spirit, “Mother” Flower exacted the girls’ revenge. The Flower sisters were found guilty and executed in Lincoln in 1618.

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ISOBEL GOWDIE

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Isobel Gowdie freely confessed to witchcraft in 1662, providing one of history’s most detailed accounts of alleged witchcraft. She described intricate sabbat ceremonies, shape-shifting abilities, and direct dealings with the Devil. While court documents never confirmed her execution, the fate of confessed witches in 17th-century Scotland typically ended at the stake.

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TITUBA

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The Salem witch trials began with Tituba’s confession. The accused witch was an enslaved Caribbean woman in Reverend Parris’s household. She initially denied accusations but later described supernatural encounters with a “tall man” who commanded her to harm children. Her confession triggered a cascade of accusations that engulfed colonial Massachusetts.

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BRIDGET BISHOP

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The Salem Witch Trials claimed Bridget Bishop first. Executed on June 10, 1692, this outspoken tavern owner had previously weathered witchcraft accusations in 1680. Bishop was accused because of her scandalous red bodice and hosting shuffleboard games. Bishop’s trial featured dramatic fits from her accusers whenever she moved.

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MARIE LAVEAU

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Voodoo Queen Marie Laveau wielded extraordinary influence in 19th-century New Orleans. This free woman of color combined Catholic rituals with Voodoo, conducting ceremonies that attracted followers across racial and class boundaries. By day, she worked as a hairdresser, gathering secrets from wealthy clients that enhanced her reputation for supernatural knowledge.

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ALICE KYTELER

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Medieval Ireland’s first documented witch trial centered on wealthy merchant Alice Kyteler. Accused by her stepchildren of poisoning four husbands through sorcery. She allegedly sacrificed animals to demons and kept a familiar spirit named Robin Artisson. Kyteler was able to escape to England, but her maid Petronella de Meath suffered flogging and burning at the stake.

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AGNES SAMPSON

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North Berwick’s respected midwife Agnes Sampson met a brutal end during Scotland’s first major witch hunt. Tortured extensively, she confessed to leading 200 witches in magical attacks against King James VI’s ships. The king personally interrogated her at Holyrood Palace. After brutal interrogation, executioners burned her at Edinburgh Castle.

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REBECCA NURSE

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The accusation of 71-year-old Rebecca Nurse shocked Salem Village. A pious church member with an impeccable reputation, Nurse was accused of torturing young girls despite her frailty. Jury members initially acquitted her but reversed their decision when accusers fell into renewed fits. After her hanging, Nurse’s family secretly recovered her body.

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MOTHER SHIPTON

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Yorkshire prophetess Mother Shipton, born Ursula Southeil, was known for predicting disasters, including the Great Fire of London. Born with physical deformities, she reportedly inherited magical abilities from her mother, who conceived her with a forest spirit.

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ALISON DEVICE

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The Pendle witch trials began when Alison Device confessed to bewitching a peddler after he refused to sell her pins. This impoverished young woman claimed her family possessed supernatural powers inherited from her grandmother. Unable to read the court evidence, she was hanged at Lancaster Castle along with nine others.

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ANNA GÖLDI

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Often called the “last witch of Europe,” Anna Göldi’s execution came during the Age of Enlightenment. This Swiss maid allegedly caused her employer’s daughter to vomit needles and suffer convulsions. Authorities sentenced Göldi to death by the sword.

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ANNE BOLEYN

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Henry VIII’s ill-fated second queen, Anne Boleyn, faced accusations of witchcraft, among other charges. Courtiers claimed she bewitched the king with magic, pointing to her sixth finger and alleged moles as “witch’s marks.” When Henry tired of her after she failed to produce a male heir, these supernatural accusations helped justify her rapid downfall. She was executed for adultery and treason rather than witchcraft.

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MOLL DYER

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Maryland folklore preserves the tale of Moll Dyer, a reclusive healer driven from her home during a harsh winter by neighbors who blamed her for crop failures and illness. She fled into the woods, where her frozen body was discovered days later, kneeling on a rock with one hand raised in an apparent curse against her persecutors.

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AGNES WATERHOUSE

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England’s first executed witch was Agnes Waterhouse, a 63-year-old widow from Hatfield Peverel. Her daughter Joan claimed Agnes transformed her cat “Satan” into a toad and commanded it to kill neighbors’ livestock. When questioned about renouncing God, Waterhouse reportedly answered in Latin despite being illiterate—evidence of demonic influence on her accusers. She was then executed.

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ARADIA

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Folklorist Charles Leland documented the legend of Aradia, the supposed daughter of the goddess Diana, who came to Earth to teach witchcraft to oppressed peasants. Published in 1899 as “Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches,” Leland’s text described an underground Italian witch religion with practices blending paganism with Christianity.

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KATHARINA HENOT

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Cologne postmaster Katharina Henot became one of Germany’s most prominent witch trial victims. As a wealthy, influential woman running the imperial postal service, Henot’s position proved precarious during intense witch persecutions. Under torture, she maintained her innocence despite accusations of causing illness through magic. After her burning at the stake, persecutors seized her property and executed her brother.

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ROSALEEN NORTON

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Tabloids dubbed her “The Witch of Kings Cross,” but Rosaleen Norton considered herself a devoted pantheist and occult artist. Her sexually explicit paintings depicting pagan gods and magical rituals scandalized the 1940s-50s Sydney. Police routinely raided her apartment, suspecting black magic ceremonies, while newspapers printed sensationalized stories about her.

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ELEANOR COBHAM

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When Duchess of Gloucester Eleanor Cobham’s husband Humphrey stood as heir presumptive to young King Henry VI, Eleanor consulted astrologers about the king’s lifespan—a treasonable offense. Authorities accused her of using wax images to harm the king, forced her to perform three public penances walking bareheaded through London, and then imprisoned her for life.

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WITCH OF ENDOR

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The only named witch in the Bible, the Witch of Endor, appears in 1 Samuel 28 when King Saul—having previously banned mediumship—disguises himself to seek supernatural guidance. This necromancer successfully raises the prophet Samuel’s spirit, who delivers Saul’s death prophecy.

Magical Witch Last Names: With Mystical Origins

There has been thousands of alleged witches throughout history. Some have been good, while others have been wicked with evil intentions. Learning about these witch last names will tell you whether or not you have witches in your bloodline.

Some witch surnames are common, while others are scarce. So, even if you have a typical surname, you could be related to a witch! Read on to discover 100 powerful last names for witches ripped straight from the history books.

Adie

Adie is a surname and given name for boys and girls, primarily used in England and Scotland. Its witch association comes from Lilas Adie, a Scottish woman accused of witchcraft and dealing with the devil. After Adie was accused, she refused to give up the names of other witches so they wouldn’t suffer the harsh treatment she received. A bold surname for a good witch who will do what’s right.

Origin: Scottish
Meaning: Son of the red earth
Pronunciation: AY-dee
Namesakes: Lilias Adie, a Scottish woman accused of practicing witchcraft.

Cute, Cool

Alden

Alden is derived from the Old English given name Ealdawine – from “eald” (old) and “wine” (friend). This classic surname that starts with A is associated with John Alden Jr., a sailor and merchant accused of witchcraft in Salem. He escaped from jail and later wrote a detailed recollection of his trials.

Origin: English
Meaning: Old friend
Pronunciation: AWL-dahn
Variations: Alvin, Elwin, Elwyn
Namesakes: John Alden Jr., a soldier and sailor accused of witchcraft after a visit to Salem, Massachusetts.

Strong, Cool, Badass

Aradia

In American folklorist Charles Leland’s book, The Gospel of Witches, Aradia is a sorceress worshiped by pagan witches in Tuscany. She was sent to earth to teach the poor how to use witchcraft against their oppressors. Some modern Wiccans honor Aradia as the Queen of the Witches. If your last name is Aradia, you may have powerful magic coursing through your veins.

Origin: Italian
Meaning: Song of the hero
Pronunciation: uh-RAY-dee-uh
Variations: Arada, Araja

Strong, Unique, Old-fashioned

Barker

Barker is a historical last name for witches, associated with a prominent family accused of witchcraft during the 1692 trials in Andover, Massachusetts. Family members admitted they attended a meeting of 100 witches in Salem Village led by the devil. If your last name is Barker, you could have a long bloodline of witches in your past.

Origin: English
Meaning: To tan
Namesakes: Mary Barker, a 13-year-old accused of being a witch and imprisoned in Andover, Massachusetts,

Common

Bennett

Bennett is a medieval surname derived from the English given name Benedict. A fictional bearer is Bonnie Bennett – the powerful and compassionate witch from The Vampire Diaries. Bennetts use their good magic to help the world.

Origin: English
Meaning: Blessed
Pronunciation: BEHN-it
Variations: Bennet, Benett, Benet
Namesakes: Tony Bennett, an American singer of show tunes and jazz.
Popularity: Bennett was the 86th most common surname in the U.S. in 2010.

Common, Cute

Bien

Bien was originally an occupational name for a beekeeper or a nickname for a hardworking person (whose as “busy as a bee.”) For witches, the name has a dark past, associated with Merga Bien – a German woman killed by fire after she was convicted of witchcraft at the Fulda witch trials.

Origin: German, French
Meaning: Bee, great
Pronunciation: BIIN, BE-uhn
Namesakes: Merga Bien, a German woman convicted of witchcraft during the Fulda witch trials (1603 to 1605).

Natural, Cute

Birgitta

Birgitta is a mythical choice among our witch last names, associated with Lasses Birgitta – an alleged Swedish witch during the 1500s who entered a church courtyard to awaken the dead. In 2021, the Danish rock band Volbeat made a song in her honor. A fancy surname for a dark sorceress.

Origin: Scandinavian
Meaning: The exalted one
Pronunciation: bir-GI-ta
Namesakes: Lasses Birgitta, an alleged Swedish witch and the first woman executed for sorcery in Sweden.

Fancy, Beautiful, Mystical

Bishop

Bishop is derived from the Greek “episkopos” (overseer). In Deborah Harkness’s book series All Souls Trilogy, Diana Bishop is an intelligent academic who rejects her witch heritage. She later embraces her magical powers, becoming one of the most powerful sorcerers in the world. Perhaps you will embrace the magic inside you, too.

Origin: English, Greek
Meaning: Overseer
Pronunciation: BISH-ahp
Namesakes: Joey Bishop, an American entertainer and talk show host listed as one of Comedy Central’s top 100 greatest comedians of all time.
Popularity: Bishop was the 262nd most common surname in the U.S. in 2010.

Common, Strong, Cute

Black

This surname that begins with B is well-suited for a witch, associated with the nighttime, black cats, and other spooky things. A real-life bearer was Mary Black – an enslaved person accused of witchcraft during the Salem Witch Trials. In J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter series, Sirius Black was Harry’s wizard godfather. An excellent surname for a powerful witch or wizard who uses their dark powers for good.

Origin: English
Meaning: Black, pale
Pronunciation: BLAK
Variations: Blake
Namesakes: Mary Black, an enslaved person in the household of Nathaniel Putnam accused of witchcraft during the Salem Witch Trials.
Popularity: Black was ranked as the 174th surname in the U.S. in 2010.

Badass, Strong, Spooky

Boleyn

Boleyn is a famous option among our witch surnames, associated with Anne Boleyn – the second wife of the infamous King Henry VIII of England. Many believed Anne Boleyn was a witch who engaged in mystical practices. This – along with accusations of treason and adultery – led to her beheading in 1536. Anne Boleyn was remembered for her intelligence and influence, making her one of the most powerful witches of all time.

Origin: Norman, English, Flemish
Meaning: Brave friend, foundation
Pronunciation: bow-LIN
Variations: Bullen, Baldwin
Namesakes: Anne Boleyn, a Queen of England in the 1500s whose execution marked the start of the English Reformation.

Beautiful, Fancy

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Boyman

Boyman is a less common variation of Bowman, derived from the Old English “boga” (bow) and “mann” (man). The name’s associated with Janet Boyman, a witch who conjured spirits to help heal various illnesses. A perfect last name for a good witch whose purpose in life is to help others.

Origin: English, Scottish
Meaning: Archer
Variations: Bowman
Namesakes: Janet Boyman, a Scottish woman accused of witchcraft and executed in 1572.

Cool

Bradbury

Bradbury is a charming last name for witches, associated with Mary Bradbury – a Salem witch who was said to transform into a blue boar and cast spells over ships. Mary had many friends who testified on her behalf, preventing her execution. An excellent surname for a well-liked witch.

Origin: English
Meaning: Manor house built with planks
Pronunciation: BRAD-br-ee
Variations: Bredbury
Namesakes: Mary Bradbury, a woman tried and convicted as a witch in Salem, Massachusetts, in 1692.

Cool

Budrioli

Budrioli is an unusual Italian surname, possibly derived from the Greek “bòthros” or Latin “butrium” (moat). A famous bearer was Gentile Budrioli, a skilled healer who became a counselor for Bologna’s ruler Giovanni II Bentivoglio in the late 1400s. Unfortunately, she was eventually accused of witchcraft, leading to her execution in 1498. Those in the Budrioli bloodline could inherit Gentile’s magical healing touch.

Origin: Italian, Greek, Latin
Meaning: Moat
Pronunciation: BOO-ree-ole-lee
Namesakes: Gentile Budrioli, an Italian astrologer and healer during the late 15th century.

Unique, Mystical, Strong

Burroughs

Burroughs is a famous witch surname associated with George Burroughs – the only religious leader executed for witchcraft during the Salem witch trials. He was described as a confident, strong-willed, and well-built man, noted for his cleverness and super-human strength. Burroughs is a strong surname for a powerful sorcerer.

Origin: English
Meaning: Hill dweller
Pronunciation: BUR-owz
Namesakes: Reverend George Burroughs, a Puritan minister executed for witchcraft in Salem, Massachusetts, during the witch trials.

Natural, Strong

Cabot

Cabot is a classy name associated with the Cabot family, who were part of Boston’s elite. Laurie Cabot was a self-identified witch who opened the Witch Shoppe in Salem in 1971. Later, she established the Witches’ League for Public Awareness to show the benefits of witchcraft and remove negative stereotypes. Cabot is well suited for a witch in high society.

Origin: Norman, English
Meaning: Head
Pronunciation: KA-bot
Namesakes: Laurie Cabot, an American Witchcraft high priestess who wrote several books on witches, magic, and spells.

Cool, Fancy, Beautiful

Carrier

Martha Carrier was one of the first people accused of witchcraft during the Salem witch trials by a group of adolescents known as the Salem Girls. They claimed Martha led an army of 300 witches and used her occult powers to curse her enemies. Martha denied these charges and refused to submit to the court, ultimately leading to her death. Those named Carrier could show strength in the face of injustice.

Origin: English, French
Meaning: Cart wagon
Pronunciation: care-REE-er
Variations: Charrier, Coyer
Namesakes: Martha Carrier, a Puritan accused and executed for witchcraft during the Salem witch trials.

Old-fashioned, Strong

Cleary

Cleary is a prominent surname in Ireland, associated with several early historians and poets. Its witchcraft association comes from Bridget Cleary – a woman killed by her husband because she was thought to have been replaced by a fairy changeling. She is sometimes described as the last victim of Ireland’s witch trials.

Origin: Irish
Meaning: Clerk
Variations: Clery, Mac Cléirich, MacClery, McCleary, Ó Cléirigh, O’Clery
Namesakes: Bridget Cleary, an Irish woman killed by her husband in 1895 because he believed a fairy changeling had replaced her.

Old-fashioned, Common, Spooky

Corey

Corey is derived from the Gaelic word “coire” (in a cauldron, in a hollow). It’s also the masculine form of the Greek Cora – the maiden name for Persephone, the goddess of spring, destruction, and the dead. Giles Corey and his wife, Martha Corey, were accused of witchcraft during the Salem witch trials. Corey has many associations with witchcraft, sorcery, and death.

Origin: Gaelic, Greek
Meaning: In a cauldron, in a hollow
Pronunciation: KAWR-ee
Variations: Korey, Kory
Namesakes: Giles Corey,

Spooky, Cool, Mystical

Crowley

Crowley is among the most famous witch surnames associated with English occultist Aleister Crowley. He founded the occult religion of Thelema and made himself the prophet. A perfect surname for someone interested in all things dark, spooky, and strange.

Origin: Irish, English
Meaning: Hardy hero
Pronunciation: KRAU-lee
Variations: Crawley, O’Crowley, McCrowley
Namesakes: Aleister Crowley,

Evil, Strong, Mystical

Cunningham

Cunningham is a powerful witch surname for a modern sorcerer. It’s associated with Scott Cunningham, an American writer and follower of Wicca – a Pagan religious group for witches. A Cunningham witch could have a way with magic (and with words).

Origin: Irish, Scottish
Meaning: Leader chief
Namesakes: Scott Cunningham, an author who wrote several books on Wicca, herbalism, and magic.

Powerful, Fancy, Badass

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Curtens

Curtens is an Anglicized form of the Gaelic surname Mac Cruitín (son of Cruitin). It was traditionally used as a nickname for hunchbacks. A witchy bearer was Helena Curtens – a 14-year-old girl accused of witchcraft after seeing a ghostly apparition on a trip to Kevelaer, Germany. She was one of the last people executed for sorcery in Germany.

Origin: Irish, English, French
Meaning: Son of Cruitin, hunchback, short
Variations: MacCurtin, McCurtin, Curtin, Curtain, Curtayne
Namesakes: Helena Curtens, an alleged German witch whose case is one of the best known in Europe.

Unique, Sad, Spooky

Delvaux

Delvaux is an elegant option among our witch last names, traditionally used as a surname for people from towns called La Vaux in Belgium and France. A famous bearer was Jean Delvaux, a monk who claimed a man in the woods turned him into a warlock when he was 15. A perfect surname for a witch residing in a valley or another isolated area.

Origin: French
Meaning: From the valley
Pronunciation: del-VOO
Variations: Delval
Namesakes: Jean Delvaux,

Mystical, Beautiful, Fancy

Device

Device is an odd choice among our last names for witches, ultimately derived from the Latin “divis” (divided). Several Device family members were a part of the famous Pendle witch trials. Many Pendle witches were healers who used herbal remedies and charms to help others. Device is an excellent “D” surname for a good witch with healing powers.

Origin: English, French, Latin
Meaning: Divided
Namesakes: Elizabeth Device,

Unique

Duncan

Duncan is associated with Geillis Duncan – a fictional witch featured in the popular book and T.V. series, Outlander. In the series, Geillis was an evil sorceress whose interest in herbal healing turned into much darker magical practices. A future witch named Duncan may remove the name’s wicked reputation.

Origin: Scottish
Meaning: Brown battle
Pronunciation: DUNG-kahn
Variations: Duncanson
Namesakes: Tim Duncan, an American former pro basketball player regarded as the greatest power forward of all time.
Popularity: Duncan ranked as the 212th most common U.S. surname in 2010.

Strong, Evil, Spooky

Dyer

Dyer was first used in medieval times for people in the trade of dying cloth. It’s ultimately derived from the Irish word “dubh” (dark, black). A famous bearer was Moll Dyer – a legendary witch chased out of her home on a cold winter’s night. She was found a few days later, frozen to a large stone. Residents of her home in Leonardtown, Maryland, say she still haunts the land, searching for the men who caused her death.

Origin: English
Meaning: Black, cloth dyer
Pronunciation: DIE-er
Namesakes: John Dyer, a famous Australian soccer player who played in the Victorian Football League between 1931 and 1949.

Badass, Spooky, Old-fashioned

Early

Early is an English variation of the Gaelic Ó Mocháin, derived from “moch” (early, timely). It’s also an English habitational name for people from places called Earley throughout England. Early’s witch association comes from Biddy Early – a talented Irish herbalist who healed people and animals. She was accused of witchcraft by local priests but was so well-liked she was eventually released.

Origin: Irish, English, German
Meaning: Early, eagle clearing
Variations: Earley, Ehrle
Namesakes: Biddy Early, a traditional Irish herbalist accused of witchcraft in the 1800s.

Beautiful, Cool

Eastey

Eastey originates from Kent at Eastry – a parish and ancient Saxon village dating back to the 9th-century. Eastey’s witchy ties come from Mary Eastey – a well-respected Puritan woman accused of witchcraft during the Salem witch trials. Mary denied her charges and, before her execution, pleaded for the judge to stop taking innocent lives. If you’re an Eastey, perhaps you’ll inherit Mary’s strength and unwavering faith.

Origin: English
Meaning: Eastern district
Pronunciation: EAST-ee
Variations: Estrei
Namesakes: Mary Eastey, a Puritan woman who was executed during the Salem witch trials.

Cool, Old-fashioned

Farrar

Farrar was originally an occupational name for an iron smith, derived from the medieval Latin “ferrum” (iron). This “F” surname is well-known in the witch community, associated with Janet Farrar – a famous advocate of Wicca, neopaganism, and witchcraft throughout the U.S. and Europe. She has published some of the most influential books on being a modern witch.

Origin: English, French, Latin
Meaning: Horseshoe
Pronunciation: FER-rawr
Variations: Ferrier, Farrow
Namesakes: Janet Farrar, a British teacher and popular author on Wicca and Neopaganism.

Natural, Cute

Faulkner

Faulkner was originally an occupational name for falcon keepers. During the Salem witch trials, Abigail Faulkner was accused of being a witch. Abigail was a powerful woman controlling her husband’s estate, which garnered resentment and led to the accusation. Faulkner is a great surname for a powerful witch with authority.

Origin: English, Scottish
Meaning: Keeper of falcons
Pronunciation: FAWK-nahr
Variations: Falconer, Falconer
Namesakes: Abigail Faulkner, an American woman accused of witchcraft during the Salem witch trials in 1692.
Popularity: Faulkner was the 952nd most common surname in the U.S. in 2010.

Badass, Natural

FitzGerald

Fitzgerald is a common name in Ireland, first brought by William the Conqueror. Gerald FitzGerald, the 8th Earl of Kildare, was a rumored shapeshifter and sorcerer of the dark arts. His son, the 11th Earl of Kildare, was said to be an alchemist with magical powers. If your surname is FitzGerald, you may be related to the famous wizards.

Origin: Irish, French
Meaning: Son of Gerald
Variations: Fitzgerald
Namesakes: Gerald FitzGerald, the 11th Earl of Kildare and an alleged sorcerer.
Popularity: Fitzgerald was the 430th most common surname in the U.S. in 2021.

Fancy, Strong

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Flanagan

Flanagan is a spooky option among our witch last names, found in Ireland and several other English-speaking countries. It’s an Anglicized form of Ó Flannagáin – an Irish family name from “flann” (blood red). Flanagan is suitable for an evil witch who delves into dark magic. It could also be a badass option for a sorceress with dark red hair.

Origin: Irish
Meaning: Blood red
Namesakes: Fionnula Flanagan, an Irish stage, television, and film actress who received the IFTA Lifetime Achievement Award in 2012.

Evil, Dark, Spooky

Flower

Flower is an elegant option among our witch last names, derived from the Middle English “flour” (flower, blossom). Some witch bearers were Joan, Margaret, and Philippa Flower, also known as the Witches of Belvoir. They were herbal healers accused of witchcraft after their former employers fell ill.

Origin: English, French
Meaning: Flower, blossom
Namesakes: Chloe Flower, an American composer, writer, and classical pianist who studied at the Royal Academy of Music in London.

Beautiful, Natural

Fortune

Fortune is derived from the Latin “fortuna” (fortune, luck, chance). This was originally a nickname for a gambler. A famous bearer is Dion Fortune, a British occultist who co-founded a magical society called the Fraternity of the Inner Light. A witch named Fortune could have insight into the world beyond.

Origin: English
Meaning: Fortune, luck, chance
Pronunciation: FAWR-choon
Variations: Fortuin, Fortuyn
Namesakes: Dion Fortune, a British occultist, magician, and novelist known for books Psychic Self-Defense (1930) and the Cosmic Doctrine (1998).

Mystical, Spooky, Cool

Foster

Foster is a variation of Forester – a surname initially given to a forest keeper. Witches are famous for living in cottages in the woods, making Foster suitable for a forest-dwelling witch. A well-known bearer was Ann Foster – a 75-year-old widow accused of witchcraft during the Salem witch trials. She immediately confessed, claiming 305 witches were operating in the area.

Origin: English
Meaning: Forest
Namesakes: Ann Foster, a widow living in Andover, Massachusetts, accused of witchcraft during the Salem witch trials.
Popularity: Foster is the 99th most common surname in the U.S., with 227,764 bearers in 2010.

Natural, Beautiful, Common

Fowler

Fowler was initially an occupational name for a birdcatcher, derived from the Old English “fugol” (bird). A famous bearer was Rebecca Fowler – the only person executed for witchcraft in Maryland. She was accused by Francis Sandsbury, an indentured servant who worked on her and her husband’s land.

Origin: English
Meaning: Birdcatcher
Pronunciation: FOW-lahr
Namesakes: Rebecca Fowler, a woman executed for witchcraft in Maryland in the 17th-century.
Popularity: Fowler was the 299th most common surname in the U.S. in 2010.

Natural, Badass, Strong

Gardner

Gardner is a nature-inspired option among our last names for witches, derived from the Old French “jardin” (garden). Witches are known for using herbs and other natural concoctions in their potions, making this surname especially appropriate. A famous namesake was Gerald Gardner – an influential magician and founder of the modern Wiccan religion.

Origin: English
Meaning: Gardener
Pronunciation: GAHRD-nahr
Variations: Gardener, Gardiner, Garner, Jardine
Namesakes: Gerald Gardner, an English Wiccan who helped bring the religion to public attention in the early 1900s.
Popularity: Gardner ranked as the 194th surname in the U.S. in 2010.

Common, Cute, Natural

Glover

Glover was initially an occupational surname for a glove maker, derived from the Middle English “glovere” (glove). The witch association comes from Ann Glover – the last person executed for witchcraft in Boston. Ann Glover was Irish and Catholic, which set her apart from her Puritan neighbors and led to her conviction.

Origin: English
Meaning: Glover maker
Pronunciation: GLUV-ahr
Namesakes: Ann Glover, the last woman hanged in Boston for witchcraft.
Popularity: Glover ranked as the 501st most common U.S. surname in 2010.

Cool, Fancy

Good

Good is a pleasant option among our witch last names that start with G, originally used as a nickname for someone generous and kind. A suitable surname for a good witch who uses magic to help others. A historical bearer was Dorothy Good – a four-year-old accused of witchcraft during the Salem Witch Trials.

Origin: English
Meaning: Good, kind
Variations: Goode
Namesakes: Dorothy Good, the young daughter of Sarah Good and William Good accused of witchcraft during the Salem witch trials.
Popularity: Good was ranked as the 981st surname in the U.S. in 2010.

Cute

Gowdie

Gowdie is an ancient Scottish name derived from “goldie” (gold). A famous bearer was Isobel Gowdie – a Scottish woman accused of witchcraft in 1662. She gave detailed confessions, claiming she and her coven (group of witches) flew on magical horses and transformed into animals.

Origin: Scottish, English
Meaning: Gold
Pronunciation: GOW-dee
Variations: Goldie
Namesakes: Isobel Gowdie, a Scottish woman who confessed she was a witch at Auldearn, Scotland.

Natural, Unique

Granger

Granger is derived from the Old French “grangier,” ultimately from the Latin “granum” (grain). A fictional bearer was Hermoine Granger – an intelligent half-witch-half-human and sidekick throughout the Harry Potter series. If your surname is Granger, your mind may be your strongest power.

Origin: English, French
Meaning: Farm bailiff
Pronunciation: GRAYN-jahr
Variations: Garner, Garnier
Namesakes: Stewart Granger, a British film actor known for his romantic leading roles from the 1940s to the early 1960s.

Cool, Strong, Badass

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Guilladot

Guilladot is an unusual French name with few modern bearers. A famous namesake was Bertrand Guilladot – a French priest and supposed sorcerer. He was one of the last people executed during the Lyon witch trials in France.

Origin: French
Meaning: Unknown
Pronunciation: GILL-lay-det
Namesakes: Bertrand Guilladot, a French Roman Catholic priest, accused of making a pact with the Devil in the 1700s.

Unique

Halliwell

Halliwell is a charming option among our witch last names, derived from the Old English “halig” (holy) combined with “well” (well, spring). In the American fantasy series Charmed, the Halliwells are good witches who use magic to protect others from evil. An excellent surname for a kind witch with pure intentions.

Origin: English
Meaning: Holy well
Pronunciation: HAL-ee-well
Variations: Holliwell, Hollowell, Hallowell
Namesakes: Geri Halliwell, best known as Ginger Spice from the Spice Girls.

Beautiful, Badass

Hausmannin

Hausmannin is derived from the Middle High German “hus” (house) combined with “man.” During the Middle Ages, it was used for the stewart of a large house, castle, or tower. The name’s witchy association comes from Walpurga Hausmannin – a German midwife executed for witchcraft and vampirism. A spooky name twinged with a very dark past.

Origin: German
Meaning: Man of the house
Pronunciation: HOUSE-MAN-nin
Variations: Haushalter
Namesakes: Walpurga Hausmannin, a German woman executed for witchcraft, murder, and vampirism in the 1500s.

Strong, Spooky

Henot

Henot is an uncommon surname beginning with H, with most bearers living in Belgium and France. A famous bearer was Katharina Henot, the first female postmaster in Germany. She and her brother, Hartger Henot, conflicted with Count Leonhard II von Taxis, who wanted to create a central post office. They were accused of witchcraft by city authorities and were later acquitted.

Origin: French
Meaning: Unknown
Pronunciation: he-NOT
Namesakes: Katharina Henot, an influential citizen in Cologne, Germany accused of harming others with magic in 1627.

Fancy, Unique

Hibbins

Hibbins is a badass surname derived from the ancient Germanic “hild” (battle) combined with “brand” (sword). A well-known bearer was Ann Hibbins – a woman executed for witchcraft in Boston before the Salem witch trials. She was later used as a character in Nathaniel Hawthorne’s book, The Scarlet Letter. Hibbins may appeal to history or literature lovers.

Hoar

Hoar comes from the Middle English “hor(e)” (gray, white-haired), making it an excellent surname for a seasoned witch with a long history. Dorcas Hoar was a widow accused of witchcraft during the Salem witch trials. She was initially found guilty and sentenced to death but later confessed, saving her life.

Origin: English
Meaning: White-haired
Pronunciation: HOR
Variations: Hoare, Hore, Dore
Namesakes: Dorcas Hoar, a woman accused of witchcraft during the Salem witch trials.

Old-fashioned

Horne

Horne was initially an occupational surname for someone who played the horn or lived near a horn-shaped geological site. The witch association comes from the Hornes – a mother and daughter accused of witchcraft by their neighbors. The daughter managed to escape, but the mother, Janet Horne, was killed by fire. Her story inspired the play The Last Witch by Rona Munro.

Origin: English
Meaning: Horn
Pronunciation: HAWRN
Variations: Horn
Namesakes: Janet Horne, the last person legally executed for witchcraft in the British Isles.
Popularity: Horne was ranked 921st for U.S. surnames in 2010.

Natural, Spooky, Evil

Jackson

Jackson was initially an English surname for a son of Jack. A well-known bearer was Shirley Jackson – a horror and mystery author rumored to have been a witch. Her 1959 supernatural horror, The Haunting of Hill House, is considered one of the best ghost stories ever written.

Origin: English, Scottish, Irish
Meaning: Son of Jack
Pronunciation: JAK-sahn
Variations: Johansen, Janson
Namesakes: Shirley Jackson, an American writer well known for her 1962 novel We Have Always Lived in the Castle.
Popularity: Jackson was the 19th most common surname in the U.S. in 2010.

Common, Cool, Strong

Kruckow

Kruckow is an uncommon surname primarily used in Denmark and Germany. Christenze Kruckow – a Danish noblewoman accused of being a witch – is one of the most famous bearers. She was the only member of the nobility executed for sorcery in Denmark.

Origin: German
Meaning: Unknown
Pronunciation: KREW-kow
Namesakes: Christenze Kruckow, a Danish noblewoman executed for witchcraft after being accused twice.

Unique, Spooky

Kyteler

Kyteler is derived from the Old Norse “ketill” (cauldron) – which are large pots used by witches to make potions in fiction and folklore. One bearer was Dame Alice Kyteler – a wealthy moneylender accused of witchcraft in Ireland. Her three husbands perished under suspicious circumstances, leading people to suspect her of using poison and sorcery against them.

Origin: Old Norse
Meaning: Cauldron
Pronunciation: KIT-LER
Variations: Kettle, Keyetler
Namesakes: Alice Kyteler, the first recorded witch in Ireland.

Mystical

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Laveau

Laveau hails from Brittany, France, and was initially used for a family who resided in a valley. Marie Laveau was a famous voodoo priestess, herbalist, and midwife in New Orleans, Louisiana. She was a beloved member of her community who often attended to the sick, helped prisoners, and educated women. Laveau is an elegant surname for a well-respected witch.

Origin: French
Meaning: Valley
Pronunciation: lah-vo
Variations: Laveaux
Namesakes: Marie Laveau, a Creole Voodoo practitioner, herbalist, and midwife from Louisiana.

Fancy, Strong, Beautiful

Leek

Leek is a habitational surname for someone from several places named Leake, Leek, Leak, or Leek in England. It’s most likely derived from the Old English “lece” or Old Scandinavian “loekr” (brook). Or, it may be a Middle English nickname for a leek grower or seller. A famous bearer was Sybil Leek – an English witch and self-proclaimed psychic dubbed “Britain’s most famous witch.”

Origin: English, Scandinavian
Meaning: Brook, leek
Namesakes: Sybil Leek, an English astrologer and author of several books on witchcraft, including Diary of a Witch (1968) and The Complete Art of Witchcraft (1971).

Natural, Cute

Le Fay

Le Fay is derived from the Middle English “faie” (fairy), ultimately from the Latin “fata” (the Fates). In the legends of King Arthur, Morgan Le Fay was a powerful sorceress, healer, and shape-shifter who was sometimes good and sometimes evil. If your surname is Le Fay, you can choose your own destiny.

Origin: English, French, Latin
Meaning: The fairy, the Fates
Variations: Lefay

Fancy, Mystical, Beautiful

MacLeod

MacLeod is derived from the Gaelic surname MacLeòid (son of Leod), ultimately from the Old Norse “ljótr” (ugly). In the TV series Supernatural, Rowena MacLeod is an evil witch and the mother of Crowley. There are many real-life MacLeods as well, including several Scottish clan chiefs. This surname radiates power and authority.

Origin: Scottish, Old Norse
Meaning: Son of Leod, ugly
Pronunciation: mah-KLOWD
Variations: McLeod, MacLeòid, MacLeod
Namesakes: William Dubh MacLeod, the seventh Chief of the Scottish Clan MacLeod.

Common, Strong, Badass

Mar

Mar is an attractive option among our surnames for witches, with roots in Switzerland, Austria, Hungary, France, Germany, Portugal, and Spain. It was initially a surname for someone residing by the sea. A witch bearer was Violet Mar – a Scottish woman accused of using sorcery, witchcraft, and spirits to bring down Regent Morton, the ruler of Scotland.

Origin: Latin, German
Meaning: Sea, tender
Pronunciation: MAHR
Namesakes: Violet Mar, a Scottish woman accused of plotting the death of Regent Morton by witchcraft.

Natural, Cute, Cool

Martin

Martin is a common surname across the world. It’s especially prevalent in France, ranked as the #1 surname with approximately 314,502 bearers. During the Salem witch trials, Susannah Martin was accused of witchcraft, despite being a devoted Christian who could recite lines from the Bible (which witches supposedly couldn’t do). She inspired the poem “The Witch’s Daughter” by John Greenleaf Whittier.

Origin: Roman
Meaning: Of Mars, warlike
Pronunciation: MAHR-tin
Variations: Martel, Martell, Martins, Martinson(
Namesakes: Susannah Martin, a woman executed for witchcraft during the Salem witch trials.
Popularity: Martin is the 20th most common U.S. surname, with 702,625 bearers in 2010.

Badass, Common

Matsdotter

Matsdotter is associated with Malin Matsdotter – an alleged Swedish witch accused of witchcraft in the late 1600s. Malin Matsdotter had difficulty reading the Holy Scripture during her trial. Later her daughters testified against her, leading to a guilty verdict and execution in 1676.

Origin: Swedish
Meaning: Unknown
Pronunciation: MATZ-dotter
Namesakes: Malin Matsdotter, an alleged Swedish witch burned for witchcraft.

Cool, Dark, Unique

Mills

Mills is derived from the Middle English “mille.” It was originally given to someone who worked or lived near a mill. A fictional bearer is Regina Mills – the powerful sorceress from the T.V. series Once Upon a Time. Regina started as the “Evil Queen” but later became the “Good Queen” when she used her magic to help instead of harm.

Origin: English
Meaning: Mill
Pronunciation: MILZ
Variations: Miller
Namesakes: Sir John Mills, an English actor who has appeared in more than 120 films.
Popularity: Mills was the 182nd most common surname in the U.S. as of 2021.

Common, Cute

Monvoisin

Monvoisin is a fancy surname for witches, well-suited for a sorceress in high society. A bearer was Catherine Monvoisin – a French fortune teller and poisoner hired by the aristocracy to enact black magic. A word to the wise – don’t mess with someone with the surname Monvoisin!

Origin: French
Meaning: Unknown
Pronunciation: mon-VOY-san
Variations: Montvoisin
Namesakes: Catherine Monvoisin, a French professional fortune-teller and provider of sorcery among the aristocracy, accused of killing 1,000 people.

Evil, Fancy, Spooky

Morgan

Morgan is derived from the Welsh “mor” (sea) combined with “cant” (circle), making it a perfect witch surname for a sea-lover. In Arthurian legends, Morgan le Fay was a powerful enchantress and sister of King Arthur. If your surname is Morgan, you could have tremendous power over the sea.

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Witches & Witch Craft

Types of Witches & What They Practice

Witchcraft as harm

Witch trials

Satanic witchcraft and the early modern witch trials

Contemporary witch-hunting

Witchcraft as a morally neutral term

Witches as women

Modern religious witchcraft

Wicca

Origins and development

Beliefs and practices

witch hunt

The origins of witch hunts

The first witch hunts

The decline and legacy of the witch hunts

Are witches real?

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What's the difference between witches and Wiccans?

Do witches cast spells?

What are covens?

The persecution of witches in history

Broomsticks, cauldrons and other myths explained

Famous Witches in History from Ancient to Modern Times

Famous Witches in History

Isobel Gowdie

Morgan Le Fay

Aradia

Marie Laveau

The Witch of Endor

Anne Boleyn

Grigori Rasputin

Alison Device

Tituba

Gerald Gardner

Gardner’s Magical Beginnings

Founder and Father of Wicca

Gardner’s Legacy (And Controversy)

Sybil Leek

Laurie Cabot

Scott Cunningham

Doreen Valiente

The Famous Witch’s Interests Grow

Valiente Joins A Coven

Valiente’s Literary Success

Rosaleen Norton

Norton’s Controversial Pagan Paintings

The Famous Witch Norton’s Form of the Craft

Alex Sanders, Famous Witch and Founder Alexandrian Wicca

The Bell Witch

The Blair Witch

Moll Dyer

The Fisherwife of Palermo

Giles Corey

Shirley Jackson

Bathsheba Sherman, The Famous Witch in the Conjuring

Christopher Penczak, Modern Witch and Author

Doreen Virtue, Controversial Witch Turned Christian

Stewart and Janet Farrar: Famous Witch Couple

Margaret & Philippa Flower

Read More About Witches of the Past:

ISOBEL GOWDIE

TITUBA

BRIDGET BISHOP

MARIE LAVEAU

ALICE KYTELER

AGNES SAMPSON

REBECCA NURSE

MOTHER SHIPTON

ALISON DEVICE

ANNA GÖLDI

ANNE BOLEYN

MOLL DYER

AGNES WATERHOUSE

ARADIA

KATHARINA HENOT

ROSALEEN NORTON

ELEANOR COBHAM

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